MMON  WEEDS  OF 
THE  FARM  &  GARDEN 


HAROLD  C.  LONG 


vuln  Lib. 


LIBRARY. 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


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COMMON  WEEDS  OF  THE 
FARM  AND  GARDEN 


COMMON  WEEDS  OF 
THE  FARM  &  GARDEN 


BY 


HAROLD    C.    LONG,   B.Sc.  (£DIN.) 

OF   THE    BOARD   OF    AGRICULTURE    AND    FISHERIES 


IN   COLLABORATION    WITH 

JOHN    PERCIVAL,  M.A ,  F.L.S. 

PROFESSOR   OF   AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 
UNIVERSITY    COLLEGE,   READING 


WITH    106    ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK 

FREDERICK    A.   STOKES    COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


^  |3  0>  (  .3 


ic.  Dept 


Printed  by  BALLANTYNE,  HANSON  &  Co. 
At  the  Ballantyne  Press,  Edinburgh 


AS   A    SMALL   TOKEN 
OF    AFFECTION    AND    ESTEEM 

I   DEDICATE 
THIS    VOLUME    TO 

MOTHER  AND  FATHER 


206456 


That  which  ye  sow  ye  reap.      See  yonder  fields  ! 

The  sesamum  fwas  sesamum,  the  corn 
Was  corn.      The  Silence  and  the  Darkness  knew  ! 

So  is  a  man's  fate  born. 

He  cometh,  reaper  of  the  things  he  sowed, 
Sesamum,  corn,  so  much  cast  in  past  birth  ; 

And  so  much  weed  and  poison-stuff,  'which  mar 
Him  and  the  aching  earth. 

If  he  shall  labour  rightly,  rooting  these, 

And  planting  wholesome  seedlings  where  they  grew, 
Fruitful  and  fair  and  clean  the  ground  shall  be, 

And  rich  the  harvest  due. 

Sir  EDWIN  ARNOLD,  The  Light  of  Asia. 


INTRODUCTION 

AGRICULTURE  has  been  defined  by  the  Bishop  of 
Newcastle  as  "A  controversy  with  weeds."  The  growth 
of  weeds  certainly  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  troubles 
of  the  tiller  of  the  soil,  for  weeds  are  too  often 
luxuriant  where  a  good  cultivated  crop  is  awaited. 
The  average  farmer  is  quite  familiar  with  the  ordinary 
tillage  operations  which  conduce  to  clean  farming, 
and  the  gardener  is  able  by  intense  cultivation  to  keep 
down  weeds,  but  there  are  many  methods  which  may 
be  successfully  employed  in  combating  a  given  species 
which  are  not  generally  known.  The  agricultural 
Press  testifies  almost  daily  to  the  fact  that  informa- 
tion on  the  best  means  of  eradicating  weeds  is  badly 
needed  by  all  concerned  in  the  growth  of  crops,  and 
I  have  long  been  convinced  that  the  subject  was 
deserving  of  special  treatment.  Careful  thought 
quickly  crystallised  into  the  idea  that  a  volume  dealing 
with  weeds  and  their  destruction,  and  summarising 
under  one  cover  the  information  scattered  in  many 
volumes  published  in  this  and  other  countries,  would 
be  of  practical  value.  I  hope,  therefore,  that  the 
following  pages  will  supply  a  real  need,  and  prove 
useful  to  all  engaged  in  the  various  branches  of 
agriculture. 

It  would  be  a  great  pleasure  to  me  should  the 
critic  complain  that  the  use  of  the  word  "  Common  " 
in  the  title  of  this  volume  is  misplaced,  as  one  of  the 

vii 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

artists,  who  experienced  some  difficulty  in  obtaining 
certain  species  for  illustration,  humorously  suggested  ! 
The  term,  however,  appears  to  fit  the  text.  In  the 
third  week  of  August  of  the  past  year,  when  examining 
a  field  of  standing  wheat,  I  spent  about  ten  minutes 
collecting  such  weeds  as  were  most  easily  found  within 
an  area  of  perhaps  little  more  than  100  square  yards. 
In  this  small  plot  were  quickly  gathered  the  following 
twenty-nine  species,  eighteen  of  which  were  already 
illustrated  for  the  pages  of  this  book : — 

* 'Convolvulus  arvemis  Senecio  vulgar  is 

*Polygonum  Convolvulus  *Galium  Aparine 
*Polygonum  Aviculare  Vicia  sativa 

*Rumex  sp.  *  Matricaria  inodora 

*  Tussilago  Farfara  Plantago  major 
*Mentha  arvensis  Lychnis  alba 
*Sinapis  arvensis  ^Euphorbia  exigua 
*Sonchus  arvensis  *Alopecurus  agrestis 

*  Stellar  ia  media  *Agrostis  sp. 
Papaver  sp.  Triticum  repens 

*  Ranunculus  arvensis  Poa  annua 

*  Viola  sp.  *  Veronica  sp. 
Potentilla  Anserina  Myosotis  sp. 
sEthusa  Cynapium  Alchemilla  arvensis 
Scandix  Pecten-  Veneris 

Most  of  these  species  are  troublesome  weeds,  and 
it  may  be  added  that  those  marked  with  an  asterisk 
were  abundant. 

In  a  wheat  field  in  which  the  crop  was  already  cut 
were  found  thirteen  species  of  weeds,  several  being 
serious  pests  ;  and  in  a  field  of  peas  was  an  almost 
overwhelming  quantity  of  Field  Bindweed  (Convolvulus 
arvensis),  Black  Bindweed  (Polygonum  Convolvulus),  and 
Perennial  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchns  arvensis),  besides  many 
other  weeds. 

These   notes  will   serve   to   show   that,  unless   these 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

cases  were  purely  the  result  of  bad  farming,  weeds 
are  still  far  more  plentiful  than  they  ought  to  be. 

An  important  point  should  be  emphasised.  Al- 
though, for  example,  the  Creeping  Thistle  may  be 
almost  or  quite  eradicated  on  a  given  farm  by  the 
methods  mentioned  at  pp.  86  and  180,  yet  its  growth  in 
the  future  is  unfortunately  not  prevented,  for  fresh  seed 
may  blow  in  from  beyond  the  boundary  hedge.  For 
farms  to  be  kept  free  from  many — I  had  almost 
written  all — weeds,  farmers  must  work  together.  There 
is  every  reason  why  farmers  should  combine  to 
exterminate  weeds  by  tillage  and  other  operations, 
including  the  cutting  of  weeds  on  waste  land  and 
roadsides,  and  also  to  ensure  purity  in  the  supply  of 
farm  seeds.  This  matter  might  well  be  taken  up  in 
their  own  neighbourhood  by  the  members  of  chambers 
of  agriculture,  farmers'  clubs,  and  agricultural  societies. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  the  fullest 
advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  information  con- 
tained in  a  large  number  of  other  works,  and  an 
endeavour  has  been  made  to  give  due  acknowledg- 
ment in  every  case.  In  describing  the  various  plants, 
Hooker's  Student's  Flora  of  the  British  Islands  and  Johns' 
Flowers  of  the  Field  have  been  especially  utilised.  The 
Bibliography  at  p.  372  will  indicate  the  extent  of  the 
literature  consulted. 

I  desire  to  make  the  fullest  acknowledgment  of  the 
assistance  of  Professor  Percival,  who  not  only  read  the 
major  portion  of  the  manuscript,  but  the  whole  book 
in  proof,  making  many  useful  suggestions  for  its  im- 
provement. In  addition,  Professor  Percival  has  written 
the  notes  at  pp.  43—48  on  the  destruction  of  weeds  by 
chemical  means;  those  at  pp.  368-371  on  the  weed 
seeds  found  in  commercial  samples  of  clover  and  grass 
seeds,  and  on  purity  and  germinating  capacity  ;  those 


x  INTRODUCTION 

at  pp.  271-275  on  the  semi-parasites  Euphrasia, 
Melampyrum,  Peiicularis,  Bartsia,  Lathrcea,  and  Viscum ; 
and  Chapter  IX.  on  Weeds  in  Ponds  and  Water 
Courses.  To  all  those  who  so  kindly  responded  to 
the  inquiry,  the  results  of  which  are  summarised  in 
Chapter  VI.,  and  who  made  many  helpful  suggestions, 
I  tender  my  warmest  thanks,  as  also  to  many  others, 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  who  may  not  be  mentioned 
personally.  In  connection  with  the  preparation  of 
Appendix  IV.,  dealing  with  legislation  enforcing  the 
destruction  of  weeds  in  various  countries,  I  must 
express  much  gratitude  for  the  kind  help  received  from 
the  Agents-General  for  the  Colonies,  and  from  foreign 
departments  of  agriculture,  as  well  as  for  information 
received  through  the  Colonial  Office  and  Foreign  Office 
by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  .and  kindly 
placed  at  my  disposal.  I  am  much  indebted  to  the 
artists  who  have  contributed  such  excellent  work  for 
the  improvement  of  this  volume,  especially  to  my  wife 
(sketches  initialled  A.  S.  L.),  to  Miss  B.  Reid,  Miss  M. 
Smith,  and  Mr.  J.  C.  Varty-Smith,  all  of  whom  have 
taken  considerable  pains  to  ensure  good  illustrations. 
The  blocks  illustrating  "  Java  "  beans  have  been  kindly 
lent  by  the  editor  of  The  Field.  For  help  in  reading 
the  proofs,  and  in  preparing  the  notes  on  legisla- 
tion and  the  index,  I  am  indebted  to  my  colleague 
Mr.  ].  L.  Bryan. 

I  shall  be  most  happy  to  receive  criticisms  and 
suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  any  part  of  this 
volume  ;  and  as  there  are  sure  to  be  omissions,  I  shall 
look  out  with  a  lively  interest  for  the  aid  which  readers 
will  be  in  a  position  to  give. 

If  this  volume  helps  in  but  a  small  degree  to 
eliminate  some  of  our  weeds,  the  labour  of  preparing 
it  will  not  have  been  in  vain.  I  hope  the  critics  will 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

be  kind,  for  they  should  be  aware  that  it  is  easier  to 
review  or  revise  a  book  than  to  write  it  ;  and  I  trust 
that,  in  the  words  of  my  father,  those  who  read  the 
book  "  will  find  something  interesting  if  not  instructive, 
or  instructive  if  it  be  not  interesting."  If  any  would 
suggest  that  the  ground  must  bring  forth  thorns  and 
thistles,  he  may  be  reminded  of  the  promise  under  a 
later  dispensation,  "  Instead  of  the  thorn  shall  come  up 
the  fir  tree,  and  instead  of  the  brier  shall  come  up  the 
myrtle  tree." 

HAROLD  C.  LONG. 

January  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

INTRODUCTION       .        ,.         .        *         .         .         .  vii 
I.  WHAT  WEEDS  ARE,  AND  How  THEY  AFFECT   OUR 

CROPS  AND  STOCK     ......  i 

II.  THE   CLASSES    OF    WEEDS,   AND   How   THEY   ARE 

SPREAD      .         .         .        ....         .         .  18 

III.  GENERAL  PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  MEASURES  29 

IV.  WEEDS  OF  ARABLE  LAND      .         .         *"        .         .  49 
V.  WEEDS  AND  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  GRASS  LAND  .  138 

VI.  WHAT   ARE   THE   WORST   WEEDS?     OPINIONS    OF 
AUTHORITIES     AS     TO     THE     TWELVE     WORST 

WEEDS  IN  VARIOUS  DISTRICTS  .        *•»         «         .  232 

VII.  PARASITIC  PLANTS 256 

VIII.  POISONOUS  PLANTS         .         .         .         .  .276 

IX.  WEEDS  OF  PONDS,  RIVERS,  AND  DITCHES      .         .322 

X.  WEEDS  IN  LAWNS,  DRIVES,  ETC 345 

XI.  PRINCIPLES  OF  SEED  TESTING        .         .         .         .  353 

BIBLIOGRAPHY      .       .      .'     /      .      .  372 

APPENDICES- 
APPENDIX  1 378 

„     II.   ....          .     .  384 

„    III.    ...  -409 

„     iv.     .                                       .  429 

V.      .                                                         .  432 

INDEX                                              ....  435 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

15.  Annual  Knawel  (Sderanthus  annuus  L.)      ....       76 

38.  ,,       Meadow  Grass  (Poa  annua  L.)         .         .  -130 

28.  „       Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  oleraceus  L.) .  .              100 

45.  Beaked  Parsley  (Anthriscus  sylvestris  Hoffm.)   .         .         .169 
33.  Bindweed,  Black  (Polygonum  Convolvulus  L.)    .         .         .117 

29.  ,,  Field  (Convolvulus  arvensis  L.)          .         .         .     103 

30.  „  Great  (C.  sepium  L.)    .         .      ...         .         .         .     105 

i.  „          Great,  rootstock  of 21 

73.  Broom-rape  (Orobanche  minor  Sutt.)   .     •    .         .         .         .     263 

80.  Bryony  (Bryonia  dioica  L.) 293 

7.  "  Buco "  Hand  Cultivator 38 

40.  Bulbous  Buttercup  or  Crowfoot  (Ranunculus  bulbosus  L.)  .     153 

47.  Burdock  (Arctium  Lappa  L.) 174 

51.  Butter-bur  (Petasites  vulgaris  Desf.)   .         .         .         .         .183 

95.  Canadian  Pondweed  (Elodea  canadensis  Michx.)         .         .     332 

53.  Cat's-ear  (Hypochceris  radicata  L.) 190 

ii.  Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis  L.) -59 

21.  Cleavers  (Galium  Aparine  L.) 84 

22.  Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara  L.)  .         .         .         .         .88 

23.  „        infested  ground 89 

57.  Common  Bugle  (Ajuga  reptans  L.)      .                  .         .         .     200 

64.  „         Sedge  (Carex  vulgaris  Fries.)       .         .         .         .215 

78.  Corn  Cockle  (Agrostemma  Githago  L.)                                     284 

24.  ,,      Marigold  (Chrysanthemum  segetum  L.)        .         .         -91 

39.  Couch  Grass  (Triticum  repens  L.) 133 

i.  „           „      rootstock  of              .         .         .         .         .         .21 

46.  Cow  Parsnip,  Hogweed  (Heradeum  Sphondylium  L.)         .     170 

1 6.  Crane's-bill,  Cut-leaved  (Geranium  dissectum  L.)        .        .       77 

b 


xvi  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


8.  Creeping  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  repens  L.)  "      .         .         .  51 
9-          »                „         seedlings      .        .        .        .        .        .52 

50.  Creeping  Thistle  (Cnictis  arvensis  Hoffm.)  .        .        .        .181 

i.         „              „        roots          .        .        .        .  "      .        .         .  21 

98.  Curly  Pondweed  (Potamogeton  crispus  L.)  ....  337 

90.  Darnel  (Lolium  temulentum  L.)  .         ,  «*    .     ;   \  '>    .         .  320 
84.  Deadly  Nightshade  (A tropa  Belladonna  L.)        .        .        .301 

58.  Dock,  Curled  (Rumex  crispus  L.)         .  ~     .        »         .        .  202 

59.  „       seedlings  (Rumex  sp.)       v"    .        .  '      T       .        .  203 
72.  Dodder,  Clover  (Cuscuta  Trifolii  Bab.)  i;.   '     .-        .         .  259 
88.  Dog's  Mercury  (Memirialis perennis  L.)     .     -    ;        .         .  310 
96.  Duckweed,  Lesser  (Lemna  minor  L.) .         .         .        .'        .  334 
42.  Dyer's  Green-weed  (Genista  tinctoria  L.)     .       :.        i        .  160 
44.  Earth-nut,  Common  {Conopodium  denudatum  Koch.)          .  168 

75.  Eyebright  (Euphrasia  officinalis  L.) 271 

21.  Field  Madder  (Sherardia  arvensis  L.)          ....  84 

31.      „      Mint  (Mentha  arvensis  L.) .         .         .         ...  in 

13.      „      Peppervvort  {Lepidium  campestre  Br.)       :*  •      .         .  65 

98.  Floating  Pondweed  (Potamogeton  natans  L.)      .        .  :      .  337 

83.  Fool's  Parsley  (sEthusa  Cynapium  L.)        '.         .  5      .         .  298 

10.  Fumitory  (Fumaria  officinalis  L.) 56 

86.  Garden  or  Black  Nightshade  (Solanum  nigrum  L.)    .         .  304 
34.  Goosefoot,  Fat  Hen  (Chenopodium  album  L.)      .         .         .120 

35-          v                »         seedlings 121 

26.  Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris  L.)   ......  97 

100.  Hand-power  Machine  for  Water  Weeds  ....  342 

20.  Hedge  Parsley  (Torilis  nodosa  L.) 82 

81.  Hemlock  (Conium  mactilatum  L.)        .....  295 

94.  Horn  wort  (Ceratophyllum  demersum  L.)      .        .    '    «        .  331 

71.  Horse-tail  (Equisetum  arvense  L.)        .....  228 

5.  Implements  for  Use  In  Eradicating  Weeds  37 

79#.  "Java "Beans 291 

48.  Knapweed,  Hardheads  (Centaurea  nigra  L.)  .  .  176 

33.  Knot  weed  (Polygonum  Aviculare  L.) 117 

1 8.  Lady's  Mantle  (Alchemilla  arvensis  Lamk.)  ...  80 

76.  Lousewort  (Pedicularis  palustris  L.)    .         .         .         .         .  273 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIG.  PAGE 

92.  Mare's  Tail  (Hippitris  vulgaris  L.)       .         .         .     •    .'         .  326 

66.  Marsh  Bent-grass  (Agrostis  alba  L.)    .         .       :;         .:       .  217 

65.  Mat-grass  (Nardus  stricta  L.)      .     "•'.        .       ;-.     :    .         .  216 

6.  Mattocks       .     .    ,        .        .        .     "'.      ?V      *.-!   >       "  •  38 

89.  Meadow  Saffron  (Colchicum  autumnale  L.)      '  '*  •  '    .         .  315 

77.  Monkshood  (Aconituw  Napellus  L.)    .         i     *  '.         .         >  277 

101.  Motor  Punt  Weed-cutter      .        .'       ;         .'•       .         .         .  342 

41.  Mouse-ear  Chickweed  (Cerastium  triviale  Link.)         .         .  157 

84.  Nightshade,  Deadly  (Atropa  Belladonna  L.)                .  301 
86.             ,,            Garden  {Solamim  nigrum  L.)          .         .  •       .  304 

85.  „            Woody  (Solanum  Dulcamara  L.)    .         .        '.  303 

27.  Nipplewort  (Lapsana  communis  L.)      .         .         .      *  *'•      .  98 
32.  Persicaria  or  Redshank  (Polygonum  Persicaria  L.)     .         .115 

36.  Petty  Spurge  (Euphorbia  Peplus  L.) 123 

3.  Poppy  Killer 35 

52.  Ragwort  (Senecio  Jacobcea  L.) 188 

79$.  Red  Rangoon  Beans     ........  291 

43.  Rest  Harrow  (Onojiis  spinosa  L.) 162 

55.  Ribwort  Plantain  (Plantago  lanceolata  L.)  .         .         .         .197 
54.  Rough  Hawkbit  (Leontodon  hispidus  L.)               .         .         .192 
39.  Ryegrass,  Perennial  (Lolium perenne  L.)     .         .         .         .  133 
25.  Scentless  Mayweed  (Matricaria  inodora  L.)  93 

103.  Seed-testing  Vessel .  366 

56.  Self-heal  (Prunella  vulgaris  L.) 199 

60.  Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella  L.)   .         .         .         .         .  205 
19.  Shepherd's  Needle  (Scandix  Pecten-Veneris  L.)  .         .         .  81 
12.           „           Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris  DC.)         .         .  64 
17.  Silver- weed  (Potentilla  Anserina  L.) 79 

37.  Slender  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  agrestis  L.)      .         .        .         .127 
69.  Soft  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  mollis  L.) 224 

28.  Sow  Thistle,  Annual  (Sonchus  oleraceus  L.)          ...  100 
49.  Spear  Thistle  (Cnicus  lanceolatus  Hoffm.)    .         .         .         .  179 
14.  Spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis  L.) 72 

61.  Stinging  Nettle  (Urtica  dioica  L.) 207 

24.  Stinking  Mayweed  (Anthemis  Cotula  L.)     .        .        .         .91 

99.  Stonewort  (Chara  vulgaris  L.) 340 


xviii  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

I-'IG-  PAGE 

4.  Thistle  and  Bracken  Cutter •  .,.':';  36 

87.  Thorn  Apple  (Datura  Stramonium  L.)         .       ..        >         .  306 

67.  Tufted  Hair-grass  (Aira  cczspitosa  L.)      ....        .         :  219 
74.  Yellow  Rattle  ( Rhinanthtts  Crista-galli  L.)          .         .         .  269 
70.  Wall  Barley  Grass  (Hordeum  murinum  L.)          .     '    .         .  225 

91.  Water  Crowfoot  (Raminculus peltatus  Fries.)       .         .         .  324 
82.        „      Dropwort  ((Enanthe  crocata  L.)    ,,,.,.        .        .         .  297 
93.       „      Milfoil  (Myriophyllum  verticillatum  L.)    .        .         .  327 
97.       „      Plantain  (Alisma  Plantago  L.)       ..,.,;     -.         .  .      .  335 

92.  „      Starwort  (Callitriche  verna  L.)        ...._     .         .        .  326 
2.  Weed-distributing  Area        .         .         .        .        .        .        .  22 

79^.  White  Beans          .    .    ......      •-•        -        .         •        -         ,  291 

62.  Wild  Onion  (Allimn  vineale  L.)  .      ,,.,,        .        .        ..      •.  210 

63.  Wood-rush  (Luzula  campestris  Willd.)     .    .        .         .        ,  212 
85.  Woody  Nightshade  (Solanum  Dulcamara  L.)     .         .         .  303 

68.  Yorkshire  Fog  (Holcus  lanatus  L.) 221 

102.  Ziemsen's  Weed-cutting  Saw 343 

Plate    L— Weed  Seeds          .        .        .        .        .     '  .        .  379 

»»         II'                    5>                   »                                                                                                   ...  381 

»      I11'                    »                   „                            •                 •                 •                 .....  383 


COMMON  WEEDS  OF  THE 
FARM  AND  GARDEN 

CHAPTER  I 

WHAT    WEEDS   ARE,   AND    HOW   THEY   AFFECT 
OUR   CROPS  AND    STOCK 

"  Everything  that  grows  without  being  sown  or  planted,  among  a  Crop 
that  has  been  sown  or  planted,  is  in  that  Place  a  Weed.  The  whole  Benefit 
of  the  Tillage  was  intended  for  the  Crop,  and  this  robs  it  of  a  Part." 

—THOMAS  HALE,  The  Complcat  Body  of  Husbandly,  1756. 

IT  is  frequently  stated  that  "  a  weed  is  a  plant  out  of 
place,"  meaning  that  it  is  a  plant  growing  in  such  a 
position  and  under  such  conditions  that  it  is  interfering 
in  some  way  with  a  cultivated  crop,  rendering  a  lawn 
or  a  gravel  drive  unsightly,  or  in  some  other  way  making 
itself  objectionable.  For  our  present  purpose  we  may 
consider  that  a  weed  is  any  plant,  of  whatever  nature, 
which  is  found  growing  where  the  agriculturist  or 
horticulturist  has  not  placed  it  and  does  not  desire 
it  to  grow.  Thus,  from  this  point  of  view,  just  as  the 
common  poppy  is  a  weed  in  the  wheat  field,  so  would 
wheat  equally  be  a  weed  if  growing  amongst  the 
gardener's  Shirley  poppies  ;  and  just  as  thistles  are 
weeds  among  the  potato  crop,  so  are  potatoes  "  out  of 
place "  and  properly  classed  as  weeds  when  self-sown 
and  found  flourishing  in  a  bed  of  carrots.  Potatoes, 
oats,  or  turnips  may  alike  be  weeds  if  they  interfere 
in  any  way  with  man's  cultivated  crops.  At  the  time  of 

A 


2  COMMON    WEEDS 

writing,  indeed,  some  self-sown  oats  are  flourishing  in 
full  ear  in  the  writer's  garden,  but  on  account  of  their 
beauty  are  left  among  the  flowers  in  a  small  group. 

i .   Uses  of  Weeds 

Weeds  are  in  general  regarded  as  harmful,  and  in 
future  chapters  will  be  so  considered.  It  will  be  well, 
however,  to  point  out  certain  ways  in  which  weeds  may 
be  said  to  be  useful. 

(a)  Weeds  may  sometimes  be  the  means  of  retaining 
nitrates  in  the  soil,  especially  in  cases  where  the  soil  is 
left  without  a  crop  for  a  time,  as  in  bare  fallowing. 
Without   the   intervention  of    weeds   nitrates   may    be 
washed  out.     It  is  probable  that  other  plant  foods  are 
also  similarly  retained  by  weeds,  and  after  these  are 
ploughed  under  the  valuable  constituents  in  them  are 
utilised  by  the  next  cultivated  crop.     As  we  shall  see 
later,    weeds    take    up    considerable    amounts    of    the 
essential  plant  foods.     The  growth  of   a   green   crop, 
however,  will   have   the  same  effect,  and  is  doubtless 
more  useful  than  weeds,  for,  unless  great  care  is  exer- 
cised, many  of  the  latter  will  seed  before  being  ploughed 
under  and  ultimately  cause  trouble  ;  nothing  is  more 
true  than  the  adage,  "  One  year's  seeding  is  seven  years' 
weeding." 

(b)  Another  way  in  which  weeds  are  useful — annual 
ones,  perhaps,  especially — is  that  they  act  in  the  same 
way  as  green  manure  when  ploughed  under,  and  even 
such   weeds  hoed  up  and   left   to  die  on   the   surface 
sooner  or  later  become  mixed  with   the  soil  and  im- 
prove it  in  various  ways.     During  their  active  growth 
they  take  up  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  atmosphere, 
utilise   the  carbon,  and  return  the  oxygen — both  acts 
in    themselves    useful    in    purifying    the    air — and,    on 


USES    OF    WEEDS  3 

decaying,  increase  the  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil. 
The  addition  of  humus  to  the  soil  benefits  both  heavy 
soils  and  those  of  a  light  or  sandy  character,  rendering 
the  former  more  open  and  porous,  and  the  latter  more 
compact  and  retentive  of  moisture. 

(c)  Perhaps  the  most  useful  part  played  by  weeds, 
however,  lies  in  the  fact  that  by  their  mere  presence 
they    indirectly   promote   good    tillage,   without   which 
first-class    agricultural    crops    cannot    be   raised.       No 
sooner  are  the  root  and  many  other  crops  through  the 
surface  than  the  hoe  of  a  good  farmer  or  gardener  is 
put  to  work  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  and  this  act  of 
tillage,   quite  apart  from  the  destruction  of   weeds,  is 
one  of  the  chief  means  which  conduce  to  good  crops, 
since  it  leads  to  the  production  of  a  fine  tilth  and  mini- 
mises the  evaporation  of  moisture  by  capillary  action. 
In    field    cultivation    hand    hoeing    is   very    materially 
assisted  by  the  horse  hoe  ;   in  ordinary  gardening  the 
hand  hoe  alone  must  be  kept  hard  at  it  early  and  late. 
It  has  been  well  said  by  a  recent  writer  that  "  many  a 
casual  gardener  owes  what  success  he  has  largely  to 
the  accidents  of  weeds.     They  demand  the  use  of  the 
hoe  ;    and  the  more  soils  and  plants  are  studied,  the 
more  manifest  does  it  become  that  a  friable,  carious, 
well-worked  surface  is  the  prime  secret  of  cultivation, 
even  in  the  case  of  many  things  that  grow  deep."  1 

(d)  In    connection    with    the    uses    of    weeds,   their 
manurial  value  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  another 
direction.       If    gathered    into    heaps    and    mixed    with 
soil    and    a    little    lime    they    make    a    valuable    com- 
post.      Placed  at   the  bottom  of  a  good-sized  trench, 
with  garden  refuse,  such   as  cabbage  leaves   and   pea 
haulm,  and  then  covered  in,  weeds  help  to  form  a  first- 
rate  bed  on  which   marrows  and   other  crops   may  be 

1  The  Times,  May  25,  1907. 


4  COMMON    WEEDS 

grown.  It  is  generally  accepted  as  sound  advice  that 
all  such  weeds  as  Couch,  Creeping  Thistle,  and  Bindweed 
should  be  burnt,  but  the  following  note  from  The  Times 
(May  25,  1907)  shows  that  the  advice  is  not  universally 
adopted: — "A  suggestive  example  of  the  difference  of 
attitude  towards  weeds  is  to  be  seen  in  the  parts  of  the 
country  where  small  cultivators  flourish.  Some  years 
ago  in  a  Bedfordshire  parish  the  farmers  had  been 
busy  at  their  normal  task  of  clearing  their  fields  of  that 
most  pestilential  weed  known  as  Twitch,  and  they  had 
stacked  the  harvest  by  the  side  of  the  road  before 
carrying  it  off  to  the  bonfire.  But  they  were  antici- 
pated. The  small  cultivators  seized  on  the  heaps  in 
triumph,  buried  them  deep  in  their  plots,  and  are  now 
growing  the  best  of  true  gardener's  stuff  from  the  bed 
of  this  excellent  fertiliser."  Practical  experience  of  the 
same  weed  has  convinced  the  author  that  there  need 
be  no  hesitation  in  following  this  plan,  but  trenching 
must  be  well  done. 

(e)  It  may  be  recalled  here  that v all  our  cultivated 
crops  have  been  derived  from  wild  plants,  and  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  certain  "  weeds  "  of  to-day  may  become 
valuable  cultivated  plants  in  the  future,  though  they 
would  still  be  weeds  if  found  growing  in  the  wrong 
place.  For  example,  mangolds  and  beet  have  been 
derived  from  the  Beta  maritima  L.,  a  wild  plant  of  the 
sea-shore  ;  and  our  cauliflowers,  broccoli,  and  Brussels 
sprouts  are  derivatives  of  the  wild  Brassica  oleracea  L., 
certain  organs  of  which  have  been  exaggerated  by 
cultivation  and  selection. 

Certain  plants  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  weeds  "  are 
useful  in  various  ways.  For  example,  rushes  and 
sedges,  frequently  troublesome  in  damp,  low-lying  land, 
are  often  used  for  the  manufacture  of  baskets  and  mats  ; 
Chicory  (Cichorium  Intybus),  occasionally  classed  as  a 


USES    OF    WEEDS  5 

weed,  is  extensively  cultivated  for  its  roots,  which  are 
dried  and  ground  for  use  as  a  partial  substitute  for 
coffee,  and  its  foliage  is  sometimes  fed  off  with  sheep  ; 
Spurrey  is  one  of  our  worst  weeds  in  certain  districts, 
but  a  form  of  it  is  widely  grown  as  a  fodder  crop  in 
Belgium  and  elsewhere  ;  the  Dandelion,  a  very  trouble- 
some weed,  is  gathered  for  the  purpose  of  making 
"  dandelion  tea"  and  "  dandelion  wine,"  and  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  for  use  in  salads  ;  Watercress,  a  weed 
of  shallow  streams,  is  also  an  important  salad  through- 
out the  country  ;  even  Couch,  that  pest  of  arable  land, 
is  not  without  its  use,  for  its  white  underground  stems 
are  gathered  in  some  places  and  cooked  for  food, 
chiefly,  we  believe,  in  Italy;  while  Groundsel,  than 
which  no  commoner  garden  weed  exists,  is  an  excellent 
green  food  for  cage  birds. 

Deadly  Nightshade,  Foxglove,  Poppy,  Meadow  Saffron, 
Aconite,  all  poisonous  plants,  contain  certain  substances 
which  are  greatly  used  in  medical  practice. 

Finally,  it  should  never  be  forgotten  by  those  who 
love  a  garden  that  many  so-called  weeds  are  in  them- 
selves elegant  and  delightful  to  the  eye,  even  if  un- 
desirable among  the  crops  with  which  they  grow,  and 
are  sufficiently  beautiful  to  lend  grace  to  the  most 
charming  of  gardens,  while  many  of  the  cultivated 
flowering  plants  are  derivatives  of  varieties  of  wild 
forms  which  in  their  native  land  are  counted  as 
"  weeds."  Various  coloured  Cornflowers  are  forms  of 
the  Corn  Blue-bottle  (Centaurea  Cyanus);  Shirley  Poppies 
were  derived  from  the  wild  red  Poppy,  and  may  them- 
selves easily  become  weeds;  Meadow  Saffron  is  also 
grown  in  gardens  for  its  beauty,  while  it  is  a  very 
poisonous  weed  of  grass  land ;  many  other  similar 
examples  might  be  mentioned. 

No  weed  is  more  attractive  in  its  simplicity  and  colour 


6  COMMON    WEEDS 

than  the  little  Scarlet  Pimpernel  or  Poor-Man's  Weather- 
glass (Anagallis  arvensis} ;  and  among  other  weeds 
possessing  a  beauty  of  their  own  may  be  noted  the 
small  and  great  Bindweeds  (Convolvulus  arvensis  and 
C.  septum),  Ragwort  (Senecio  Jacobcea),  and  Corn  Marigold 
(Chrysanthemum  segetum). 

2.   Harm  done  by  Weeds 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  weeds  have  their  uses,  it 
is  generally  agreed  that  they  are  a  nuisance,  and,  while 
they  are  undoubted  incentives  to  good  cultivation,  with- 
out which  the  best  crops  cannot  be  grown,  all  good 
farmers  and  gardeners  are  equally  bent  on  their  eradi- 
cation. Before  considering  the  principles  involved  in 
their  destruction,  it  will  be  well  to  get  a  clear  under- 
standing as  to  the  way  in  which  they  are  harmful  to  the 
farmer  or  gardener.  If  we  give  a  little  thought  to  the 
matter,  it  will  soon  become  evident  that  cultivated  crops 
are  harmed  and  profit  is  reduced  by  weeds  in  a  variety 
of  ways. 

(a)  Weeds  take  up  Space  which  should  be  occupied  by  the 
Crop. — Both  the  farmer  and  the  gardener  are  aware  that 
their  crops  require  plenty  of  space  to  enable  each  indi- 
vidual plant  to  grow,  and  this  is  quite  plain  when  we 
observe  the  space  allowed  for  a  turnip,  a  mangold,  an 
onion,  or  a  potato  root.  The  principle  of  space  is  in- 
volved in  the  idea  of  "  singling  "  root  and  other  crops 
and  flowers.  Two  plants  cannot  advantageously  grow 
on  the  spot  of  ground  intended  for  one,  and  if  a  Char- 
lock plant  and  a  wheat  plant  grow  together  with  their 
roots  in  the  same  cubic  foot  of  soil,  it  is  certain  that  the 
Charlock  will  exert  an  adverse  influence  on  the  wheat, 
and  prevent  it  from  yielding  its  full  crop.  A  Plantain 
growing  on  a  lawn  covers  quite  a  large  area  with  its 


HARM    DONE    BY    WEEDS  7 

broad  flat  leaves,  under  which  grass  does  not  grow,  the 
removal  of  the  weed  leaving  a  bare  patch.  Under  ideal 
conditions  the  whole  of  the  cultivated  area  should  be 
occupied,  even  if  not  covered,  by  the  planted  crop. 

(b)  Weeds  rob  cultivated  Crops  of  (i)  Food;  (2)  Light, 
Air,  and  Heat;  (3)  Moisture.  When  we  see  a  cornfield 
crowded  with  weeds  we  may  be  quite  sure  that  these 
not  only  take  up  much  space,  but  that  they  also  rob  the 
cultivated  crop  of  food,  light,  and  moisture. 

(i)  A  large  crop  of  weeds  not  only  takes  up  much 
carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  atmosphere,  but  needs  a 
considerable  quantity  of  mineral  food,  which  can  only 
be  obtained  from  the  soil  and  from  the  manures  applied 
for  the  sown  crop.  That  weeds  absorb  soluble  in- 
gredients from  the  soil  in  considerable  quantity  is  clearly 
shown  by  analysis.  Some  analyses  made  at  Konigs- 
berg,  and  lately  reported  by  Professor  Stutzer  and  L. 
Seidler,1  show  that  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  potash,  and  lime  which  are  removed  are  deserving 
of  serious  consideration.  A  number  of  weeds  without 
their  roots  were  collected  from  oat  fields,  the  soil  of 
which  was  fairly  heavy  and  poor  in  humus.  In  the 
case  of  the  Wild  Radish  or  White  Charlock  the  plants 
had  already  formed  many  seed-pods,  but  the  other 
weeds  were  in  full  bloom.  The  table  on  page  8 
shows  the*  percentage  of  ingredients  in  the  dry  matter. 
These  figures  indicate  in  a  general  way  the  amount 
of  the  chief  plant  foods  required  by  weeds.  The  nitro- 
gen in  the  Persicaria  nearly  equalled  20  per  cent,  and 
that  in  the  Sow  Thistle  nearly  15  per  cent  of  albumi- 
noids in  the  dry  matter.  Phosphoric  acid  was  chiefly 
taken  up  by  Spurrey  and  Persicaria  ;  potash  by  the 
Sow  Thistle  and  Spurrey ;  and  lime  by  Persicaria, 
Yarrow,  and  Cornflower. 

1  Fiihling's  Landwirtschaftliche  Zeitung,  June  15,  1908,  p.  429. 


COMMON    WEEDS 


PERCENTAGE  CONTENTS  OF   DRY   MATTER 


Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 

phoric 
Acid. 

Potash. 

Lime. 

So- 
dium. 

Crude 

Ash. 

Sow     Thistle     (Sonchus 

oleraceus)     . 

2.39 

0.88 

4-77 

1.94 

2.16 

H-95 

Cornflower      (Centaurea 

Cyanus) 

2.30 

0.78    I     1.94 

3.13 

1.07 

8.12 

Spurrey     (Spergida     ar- 

vensis) 

2.36      i.  08  |   4.21 

1.52 

1.91 

IO.I2 

Wild  Radish  (Raphanus 

Raphanistmni)   . 

I.8S 

0.78 

1.30 

I.8l 

0.71 

5.22 

Persicaria    or   Redshank 

(Polygomini  Persicaria) 

3-12 

1.16 

3.12 

4-93 

2.53 

10.58 

Yarrow  (Achilka  Mille- 

folium) 

2.30 

o-93 

3-15 

3.84 

1.17 

9.6l 

Average  of  six  weeds 

2.38 

o.93 

3.08 

2.86 

1.59 

9.76 

Weeds,  therefore,  take  food  material  which  would 
have  been  equally  available  for  the  cultivated  crop,  but 
which  is  thus  lost  to  the  farmer,  at  least  for  the  time 
being.  Although  the  weeds  may  in  some  way  be 
utilised,  or  the  food  they  have  taken  be  in  part  returned 
to  the  soil,  it  would  be  of  greater  benefit  to  the  farmer 
if  the  food  removed  by  the  weeds  were  immediately 
utilised  in  building  up  larger  and  better  grain,  root,  or 
fodder  crops. 

(2)  For  the  most  successful  growth  of  any  ordinary 
crop  an  unrestricted  amount  of  light  is  requisite,  green 
crops  being  unable  to  develop  the  green  colouring 
matter,  or  chlorophyll,  necessary  for  their  nutrition, 
except  in  the  presence  of  sunlight.  This  may  be  clearly 
seen  when  a  patch  of  grass  is  covered  with  a  board  or 
a  sack,  the  grass  which  grows  beneath  being  of  a  sickly 
yellowish-white  colour.  Further,  even  if  the  green  colour 
is  developed,  light  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  process 


HARM    DONE    BY    WEEDS  9 

of  food-making  from  the  simple  substances  which  the 
plant  takes  in  may  go  on.  Some  crops  can  tolerate 
the  absence  of  a  free  supply  of  light  better  than  others, 
but  as  a  general  rule  the  more  light  the  better.  A  large 
crop  of  weeds  tends  to  restrict  the  light  supply,  and  has 
therefore  a  bad  effect  on  the  cultivated  crop.  The  supply 
of  heat  to  the  soil  and  crop  is  also  restricted,  and  the 
free  circulation  of  air  is  prevented.  Ripening  corn  crops 
especially  suffer  in  this  way  from  a  profusion  of  weeds, 
both  as  standing  crops  and  when  stocked  to  dry.  Wollny 
found  that  an  unweeded  soil  was  colder  to  a  depth  of  4 
inches  than  a  soil  kept  free  from  weeds. 

(3)  Weeds  also  absorb  from  the  soil  and  "  transpire," 
or  pass  off  into  the  atmosphere,  large  quantities  of 
moisture  which  would  be  of  great  service  to  the 
growing  crop.  For  example,  a  maize  plant  has  been 
observed  to  transpire  in  the  16  weeks  between  May 
22nd  and  September  4th  as  much  as  36  times  its  own 
weight.1  A  large  oak  tree  is  also  stated  to  transpire  10 
to  20  gallons  of  water  in  a  day  ;  while  barley,  beans, 
and  clover  were  found  to  transpire,  during  five  months 
of  their  growth,  over  200  times  their  dry  weight  of 
water.  Experiments  conducted  at  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  of  Cornell  University  showed  that 
during  the  growth  of  a  6o-bushel  crop  of  maize  the 
plants  pumped  from  the  soil,  and  transpired  into  the 
air  through  the  leaves,  upwards  of  900  tons  of  water. 
A  25-bushel  crop  of  wheat  similarly  disposed  of  500 
tons  of  water.  Weeds  also  transpire,  and  if  the  ground 
be  covered  with  weeds  it  is  certain  that  much  of  the 
moisture  which  would  be  of  value  to  the  crop  will  be 
lost  in  the  manner  indicated.  Weeds  are  especially 
harmful  in  this  way  in  a  hot  summer,  and  the  loss  is 
most  felt  by  the  cultivated  crop  on  light  sandy  soils. 

1  Fream,  Elements  of  Agriculttire,  p.  108. 


io  COMMON    WEEDS 

(c)  Weeds    hinder  proper    and    thorough    Cultivation. — 
When  a  cultivated   crop    is   infested  with   a   multitude 
of  weeds,  proper  and    thorough    cultivation    is   largely 
hindered.      "  Singling"  of    root    crops,   earthing  up  of 
potatoes,   even   ploughing,    cultivating,   and   harrowing, 
are   all   rendered    more    difficult    and    costly    by   their 
presence. 

(d)  Weeds  harbour   injurious  Insects  and   Fungi. — The 
harm  frequently  done  by  weeds  in  sheltering  insect  and 
fungoid  pests  is  considerable.      Besides  merely  acting  as 
hiding-places  for  insects,  they  may  be  intermediate  host 
plants  for  both  insects  and  fungi.     As  examples  of  these 
harmful   weeds   may   be   mentioned  Charlock   (Sinapis 
arvensis),  Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris),  and 
Garlic  Mustard  or  Jack-by-the-Hedge  (Sisymbrium  Alli- 
aria),  and  other   Cruciferse,  which   shelter   Flea  Beetles 
(Haltica  spp.),  these,  in  due  time,  attacking  turnips  and 
causing   the   infestation   known  as  "  fly."     Cruciferous 
plants  also  support  the  larvae  of  the  Diamond-back  Moth 
(Plutella  maculipennis).    The  Bean  Aphis  (Aphis  rumicis)  is 
similarly  found  on  Docks  and  Goosefoot,  and  the  Stem 
Eelworm  (Tylenchus  devastatrix)  is  largely  supported  and 
spread  by  many  weeds,  as  also  are  other  species  of  Eel- 
worms.     The  well-known  fungus  Ergot  of  rye  (Claviceps 
purpurea)  occurs    on  hedgerow  and  other  grasses,  and 
may  thence  pass  to  rye  and  other  cereals  ;  the  Rust  of 
wheat  (Puccinia  graminis)  passes  one  stage  of  its  life  on 
the  Barberry  ;  Finger-and-toe  of  turnips  (Plasmodiophora 
brassicce)  finds  a  host  in  Charlock  and  other  Cruciferous 
weeds  ;  while  White  Root-rot  (Rosellinia  necatrix]  attacks 
a  number  of  weeds.     Many  other  insects  and  fungi  are 
similarly  sheltered  by  weeds,  not  only  in  the  open,  but 
in    corners   of    fields   and   gardens,  in   hedgerows   and 
ditches,  and  round  buildings. 

It  may  be  useful  to  give  a  list  of  a  few  of  the  more 


HARM    DONE    BY    WEEDS  n 

common  insect  and  fungoid  pests  which  are  spread  by 
means  of  weeds  acting  as  host  plants  : — 

WEED  "  HOST."  INSECT. 

C  Turnip    Flea    Beetle    or    "  Fly " 

Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis)  andj       (Phyllotreta(PIaltica]nemorum\ 
similar  Crucifers        .         .         .1  Cabbage  and  Turnip  Gall  Weevil 

\      (Ceutnrhvnr.hus  sulcicnllis}. 


Goosefoot  (Chenopodium  album)\ 
Thistles  (Cnicus  spp.)  . 
Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus)          .         .  r 
Dandelion  (Taraxacum]  and  ap- 
parently Docks  (Rumex)         .' 


(Ceutorhynchus  sulcicollis], 
Mangold  Fly  (Pegomyia  betce). 


Charlock  and  other  Crucifers       .  )  Diamond-back      Moth     (Plutella 
Prickly  Saltwort  (Salsola  Kali)   .  \      maculipennis). 

Thistles,  and  the  Cotton  Thistle 

(Onopordon  Acanthiuni)  . 

Hops,  Yorkshire  Fog,  Poa  annua, 
"'  Daisy,  Shepherd's  Purse,  Spur- 
rey,  Buttercup,  Cornflower,  Sow  1  Stem  Eelworm  ( Tylenchus  devas- 
Thistle,  Black  Bindweed  (Poly-  f      tatrix}  (not  an  insect). 
gonum  Convolvulus),  and  Plan- 
tain     J 

NfehaJeSvS"ban?.'..H5d?f)  Colorado   Beetle   (Dorvthora  de- 


Shepherd's  Purse,  Winter  Cress,  >  Cabbage  Root  Fly  (Phorbia  bras- 
Hedge  Mustard         .         .         .  $     sicce). 

Various  Grasses    ....     Frit  Fly  (Oscinis  frif). 


Docks,  Thistles,  Burdock     .         .  j  Gh/^/°jr  °Uer  M°th 


WEED  "  HOST."  FUNGUS. 


Charlock  and  other  Crucifers       .  {  Finge5:a"d"tOe,  °f  ^"Vfr8    (P/aS~ 

(      modtophora  brassicce  Won).    . 

„  ,,  ,,  .     Peronosporaparasitica  De  Bary. 


12  COMMON    WEEDS 

WEED  "HOST."  FUNGUS. 

(  White   Root-rot  (Rosellinia  neca- 
Many  Species       .        .       ..         . 


( Sclerotium     Disease    (Sclerotinia 
>'          >'  ' ;       *  "j      sclerotiorum  Mass.). 

(  Blindness    in    Barley    and     Oats 

Wild  Barley  (Hordeum  murinum}  <      ( Helininthosporium  graminenm 

(      Erikss.). 

Shepherd's  Purse  and  other  Cru- )  White  Rust  of  Cabbages  (Cysto- 
cifers          .         .         .        .         .)     pus  candidus  Lev.). 

f  Violet  Root-rot  (Rhizoctonia  vio- 
Many  Species       .        .         *•       .  <      faceaTul.). 

Agrostis  canina    L.,  and    other  )  Reed-mace  Fungus  (Epichloe  ty- 
grasses      .         .         .         •         •  )     ^wlHtfTuL). 

(  Rust  of  wheat  (Puccinia  grami- 
Barberry \      nis  Pers.}< 

(  Gooseberry-leaf  Cluster-cups  (Puc- 
Sedges  (Larex]     .         .         .         >\      dnia pr'ingsheimiana  Kleb.). 

(  Peronosbora  effusa  Rab.,  on  spin- 
Goosefoot |      acb 

,         (  Rosellinia   radiciperda  Mass.      A 
Docks,  Sorrel,  and  many  others  |     Whhe  Root.rot^n  New  Zealand. 

,  /  TJ.        .      N  (Chrysanthemum    Rust    (Puccinia 

Hawkweed  (Hieradum}       .        .  j      h]eracii  Mart)< 

Groundsel,   Ragwort,  and    other  )  Pine   Cluster-cups   (Peridermium 
species  of  Senedo      .         .         .  )     pini  Wallr.). 

.,  j  ^  f  Ergot  of  rye  (Claviceps  purpurca 

Many  wild  Grasses      .         .         .  \      J^.^  x 

These  few  data  will  make  it  quite  clear  that  weeds 
may  frequently  be  of  great  importance  in  connection 
with  insect  and  fungous  infestations. 

(e)  Weeds  may  be  Parasitic  on  certain  Crops. — Some 
weeds  are  actually  parasites  living  on  the  crop  under 
cultivation,  feeding  on  the  juices  elaborated  by  the  crop 


HARM    DONE    BY    WEEDS  13 

for  its  own  uses.  Such  weeds  as  these  may  do  great 
damage,  even  killing  extensive  areas  of  the  crop  on 
which  the  farmer  may  be  largely  depending.  The  two 
most  serious  agricultural  parasitic  weeds  are  Dodder 
and  Broom-rape,  both  of  which  attack  red  clover 
(Trifolium  pratense).  Other  weeds,  as  Yellow  Rattle 
(Rhinanthus  Crista-galli),  Lousewort  (Pedicular is),  Eye- 
bright  (Euphrasia  officinalis),  and  a  few  others,  are  semi- 
parasitic  on  the  roots  of  grasses.  (See  Chap.  VII.) 

(/)  Some  Weeds  are  Poisonous,  either  to  man  or  to 
farm  live  stock,  and,  as  such,  are  to  be  destroyed. 
Numerous  plants  have  from  time  to  time  been  re- 
corded as  poisonous,  and  have  frequently  proved  fatal. 
(See  Chap.  VIII.) 

In  other  cases,  although  not  directly  harmful  to 
stock,  weeds  may  taint  the  milk,  and  consequently  the 
butter  made  from  it,  of  cows  which  have  fed  upon 
them,  thus  lowering  the  market  value  of  the  produce  or 
rendering  it  distasteful  for  home  consumption.  Such 
weeds  as  Garlic  (Allium  sp.),  Garlic  Mustard  (Alliaria 
officinalis),  Ivy  (Hedera),  Ranunculus  acris,  Chamomile 
(Anthemis),  and  others,  are  harmful  in  this  way  to  the 
dairy  farmer. 

(g)  Climbing  and  Binding  Weeds  drag  down  the  Cultivated 
Crop  and  prevent  proper  Growth. — This  may  be  well  seen 
in  the  case  of  the  Bindweeds  (Convolvulus  arvensis,  C. 
septum,  and  Polygonum  Convolvulus),  which  twine  them- 
selves round  bush  fruit-trees,  cereals,  and  many  garden 
crops.  When  they  once  gain  a  footing  they  are 
difficult  to  eradicate,  and  may  do  much  damage. 
Wild  Vetches,  Cleavers,  &c.,  may  by  sheer  weight 
break  down  corn  crops.  Traveller's  Joy  (Clematis 
Vitalba),  Bryony  (Bryonia  dioica),  and  Honeysuckle 
(Lonicera  Periclymenum)  are  climbing  hedge  weeds. 

(h)   The  Commercial  Value  of  Agricultural  Seeds  is  much 


14  COMMON    WEEDS 

Reduced  by  the  Presence  of  Weed  Seeds. — The  importance 
of  sowing  clean  seeds  is  fairly  generally  recognised,  and 
farmers,  as  a  rule,  prefer  a  high-class  to  a  low-class 
sample.  At  the  same  time  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
sufficient  care  is  not  always  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  agricultural  seeds.  The  reliable  seed  merchant  is 
certain  only  to  offer  a  low  price  for  samples  of  grain, 
clover,  grass,  and  other  seeds  badly  infested  with  weed 
seeds,  for  considerable  trouble  and  expense  is  involved 
in  cleaning  them.  The  seeds  of  Melampyrum  arvense 
darken  wheat  flour,  and  are  stated  to  render  the  latter 
dangerous  to  health.  For  milling  purposes  wheat  is 
much  reduced  in  price  if  it  contains  much  seed  of  Corn 
Cockle,  Black  Bindweed,  or  wild  or  cultivated  Tares  ; 
and  clover  samples  containing  Dodder  and  other  weed 
seeds  are  seriously  depreciated  in  value.  The  Four- 
teenth Annual  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  (1905-6)  quotes 
two  cases  in  which  wheat  samples  were  respectively 
docked  16  Ib.  and  23  Ib.  per  bushel  on  account  of 
weed  seeds,  chiefly  Wild  Oats.  This  is  perhaps  an 
extreme  example,  but  it  illustrates  the  serious  nature 
of  weed  infestation  in  certain  cases.  Agricultural  seeds 
surfer  if  weed  seeds  are  present,  not  only  because  the 
seed  merchant  must  expend  time  and  money  in  clean- 
ing them,  but  if  this  be  not  done  thoroughly  the  farmer 
is  faced  with  the  introduction  of  new  and  harmful  weeds 
on  his  farm.  (See  also  Chap.  XI.) 

(i)  Stoppage  of  Drains. — It  must  be  remembered,  too, 
that  the  growth  of  roots  and  underground  stems  is  some- 
times responsible  for  the  stoppage  of  drains,  and  may, 
therefore,  cause  considerable  expenditure  in  correcting 
this  trouble. 

(/)  General. — From  what  we  have  seen,  it  will  be 
gathered  that  weeds  are  a  source  of  great  loss  owing  to 


HARM    DONE    BY    WEEDS  15 

the  harm  done  to  cultivated  crops.  A  point  to  which 
attention  has  not  yet  been  directed  is  that  of  harvesting 
weeds  with  corn,  hay,  and  other  crops.  In  such  a  case, 
where  weeds  are  very  abundant,  reaping  or  mowing  the 
crop  is  much  more  difficult  and  prolonged,  while  drying 
or  curing  is  also  rendered  troublesome.  Much  oppor- 
tunity is  thus  offered  for  the  spoiling  of  both  grain 
and  straw  by  long  exposure  to  the  weather,  to  say 
nothing  of  loss  due  to  birds  and  animals.  Where  many 
thistles  abound  hand  tying  of  sheaves  is  extremely 
difficult,  while  pitching,  loading,  stacking,  and  thrashing 
are  all  rendered  more  troublesome  and  costly. 

Money  Losses  due  to  Weeds. — That  great  losses  are  due 
to  the  infestation  of  crops  by  weeds  requires  no  proof, 
yet  the  exact  amount  of  financial  loss  due  to  their 
presence  among  crops  has  rarely  been  ascertained.  In 
those  few  instances  where  careful  observations  have 
been  made,  the  extent  of  the  pecuniary  loss  has  been 
proved  to  be  greater  than  the  farmer  would  anticipate. 
Percival,  in  writing  of  some  field  observations,  says  : l 
"  In  many  cases  the  moderately-weeded  areas  carried 
from  40  to  50  per  cent  more  crop  than  those  on  which 
the  weeds  were  unchecked."  Again,  according  to 
Maier-Bode,2  Wollny  has  placed  the  annual  loss  of  crops 
due  to  weeds  in  Bavaria  at  an  average  of  30  per  cent. 
Investigations  conducted  in  Norway  by  E.  Korsmo 3 
show  that  the  effect  of  weeds  on  the  yield  and  money 
value  of  crops  is  very  serious.  Hay,  barley,  and  pota- 
toes were  each  grown  on  duplicate  plots  of  the  same 
size,  one  being  clean  and  the  other  weed-infested.  The 
crops  were  carefully  weighed  and  the  yields  calculated 
per  hectare.  The  results  may  be  given  thus  in  English 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  March,  1904. 

2  Fr.  Maier-Bode,  Die  Bekampfung  der  Acker-  Unkrduter. 

3  Tidsskr.  Norske  Landbr.  10  (1903),  Nos.  6,  pp.   247-280;  7,  pp.  295- 
330.     (Review  by  F.  W.  Woll  in  U.S.  Expt.  Sta.  Record,  1903-4,  p.  683.) 


i6 


COMMON    WEEDS 


figures  (taking  2.2  lb.=  i   kilogram,   and    2.48  acres  = 
i  hectare) : — 


Yield  ] 

uer  Acre. 

Percentage  Loss  in 

p 

Money  Value  on 

Clean  Plot. 

Weedy  Plot. 

Weedy  Plot  compared 
with  Clean  Plot. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Per  Cent. 

Hay 

4Q 

a  i  "?  8  +  23 

4.7 

Barley- 

Grain    .... 

18 

6.6} 

Straw   .... 

30 

013.8+19    / 

46 

Potatoes  .... 

175 

90 

49 

a  Weight  of  weeds  included  with  hay  and  straw. 

In  an  instructive  experiment  carried  out  in  1907  and 
1908  at  University  College  Farm,  Reading,  it  was  found 
that  when  mangolds  were  not  weeded  after  the  plants 
were  singled  the  yield  in  the  two  years  averaged  16^ 
tons  per  acre,  while  on  a  similar  plot  on  which  the 
weeds  were  kept  down  by  hand  weeding  only,  without 
hoeing,  the  yield  averaged  39  tons.  When  kept  clean 
by  hoeing  the  yield  was  practically  the  same  as  with 
hand  weeding,  but  with  two  hoeings  only  the  yield 
averaged  37^  tons  per  acre  ;  with  one  hoeing  only  the 
yield  was  31  tons.  Two  points  in  this  experiment  stand 
out  clearly  :  one  hoeing  only  appears  to  have  almost 
doubled  the  yield ;  while  hand  weeding,  and  keeping 
quite  clean  by  hoeing,  had  about  the  same  effect 
and  much  more  than  doubled  the  yield,  the  "  no 
weeding  "  and  "  hand  weeding  "  comparing  in  yield  as 
100  to  240.  (See  also  Charlock,  p.  59.) 

Finally,  as  will  be  observed  at  p.  367,  the  loss  in 
purchasing  agricultural  seeds  will  be  245.  in  every  .£5 


HARM    DONE    BY    WEEDS  17 

spent  if  the  real  value  on  account  of  impurity  and 
poor  germinating  capacity  be  only  76  per  cent.  Were 
such  a  sample  sown,  however,  the  loss  would  probably 
be  far  greater  than  245.,  owing  to  the  large  number  of 
weed  seeds  which  would  be  sown  and  obtain  a  footing 
in  the  crop,  causing  subsequent'  trouble  in  the  ways 
already  discussed. 

The  practical  thinking  farmer  or  gardener  who  knows 
his  business  and  is  thoroughly  alive  to  his  own  interests 
will  allow  no  weeds  to  grow  if  he  can  possibly  help  it. 
Fortunately,  when  once  a  farm  is  clean  it  is,  with  due 
care,  not  difficult  to  maintain  it  in  this  condition,  and 
the  first  object  of  a  farmer,  gardener,  or  fruit-grower 
wrho  has  land  foul  with  weeds  is  to  exterminate  these 
as  quickly  as  possible.  Eradicating  Charlock  in  the 
wheat  field,  Thistle  cutting  on  both  arable  and  pasture 
land,  cleaning  arable  land  of  Couch  or  Twitch,  cleaning 
saved  seeds  from  weed  seeds — all  these  absorb  much 
time  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  and  consequently  mean 
the  loss  of  much  money. 

However,  the  persistent  destroyer  of  weeds  will  find 
that  as  time  goes  on  his  expenditure  on  this  score 
becomes  less  and  less,  until  the  weeds  are  kept  down 
effectually  in  the  ordinary  processes  of  good  cultiva- 
tion ;  but  both  preventive  and  remedial  measures  must 
be  closely  and  faithfully  followed,  and  no  slackness  or 
negligence  allowed  to  creep  in  :  t*  One  year's  seeding 
means  seven  years'  weeding  "  is  a  motto  which  should 
be  well  graven  in  the  minds  of  all  cultivators  of  the 
soil. 

"It  is  needless  to  go  about  to  compute  the  value  of  the  damage  weeds 
do,  since  all  experienced  husbandmen  know  it  to  be  very  great,  and  would 
unanimously  agree  to  extirpate  their  whole  race  as  entirely  as  in  England 
they  have  done  the  wolves,  though  much  more  innocent  and  less  rapacious 
than  weeds."— JETHRO  TULL,  The  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry,  1731. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE    CLASSES    OF    WEEDS,   AND    HOW   THEY    ARE 
SPREAD 

"  Slack  neuer  thy  weeding,  for  dearth  nor  for  cheap, 
the  corne  shall  reward  it,  yer  euer  ye  reape." 

— THOMAS  TUSSER,  Five  Hundreth  Pointes  of 
Husbandrie^  1557. 

IT  will  now  be  our  purpose  to  consider  the  classes  of 
weeds  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  distributed. 
We  may  usefully  regard  weeds  as  divisible  into  three 
classes,  Annuals,  Biennials,  and  Perennials,  and  an  un- 
derstanding as  to  what  these  terms  mean  and  the 
principles  they  involve  will  be  of  use  in  enabling  us 
the  more  successfully  to  combat  weeds. 

Annuals  are  plants  which  grow  from  seed  which  is, 
in  general,  produced  the  year  before,  and  they  attain 
maturity,  produce  flowers  and  seeds,  and  die  the  same 
season.  Among  annual  weeds  may  be  mentioned 
Poppies,  Charlock,  Corn  Cockle,  Spurrey,  Groundsel, 
Clover  Dodder,  Cleavers.  Some  plants,  such  as  Chick- 
weed  and  Groundsel,  which  are  capable  of  producing 
several  generations  in  one  season,  are  frequently  termed 
ephemerals. 

Biennials  include  all  plants  which  grow  from  seed 
and  complete  their  life  cycle  in  two  seasons.  The 
first  year  they  spend  in  establishing  themselves  in  the 
soil,  and  in  the  second  year  produce  flowers  and  seeds 
and  then  die.  In  any  season  therefore  will  be  found 
plants  of  one  year's  and  of  two  years'  growth,  the 
former  being  immature,  while  the  latter  at  the  right 

18 


HOW    WEEDS    ARE    SPREAD  19 

period  will  flower  and  seed.  Examples  of  biennial 
weeds  are  :  Marsh  Thistle,  Burdock,  Hemlock,  and 
Foxglove. 

Perennials  are  those  plants  which  live  and  continue 
to  produce  flowers  and  seeds  for  a  number  of  years  in 
succession  ;  they  grow  from  seed,  and  may  be  propa- 
gated and  spread  by  means  of  their  rootstock  and 
other  organs.  Examples  are :  Couch  Grass,  Coltsfoot, 
Ox-eye  Daisy,  Creeping  Crowfoot,  Creeping  Thistle, 
Knapweed,  Yarrow,  Bindweed,  and  Stinging  Nettles. 

These  three  classes  of  weeds  may  be  spread  or  dis- 
tributed in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  the  chief  of  which 
are  given  below. 

(a)  Weeds  are  Spread  by  Natural  Seeding    and  by  the 
Wind. — In   the   ordinary  course  of  events   weeds   pro- 
duce seeds  at  their  normal  seasons,  such  seeds  being 
naturally  distributed  over  a  narrow  or  wide  area  ac- 
cording to   certain   botanical   characters   of  the   plant. 
Many  seed-vessels  are  so  constructed  that  on  ripening 
they  split  and  throw  out  their  seed  with  considerable 
force,  projecting  it  to  a  distance  from  the  parent  plant. 

Other  seeds  bear  flight  organs  or  are  "  winged," 
and  are  carried  through  the  air  for  long  distances  by 
the  wind  (e.g.  seeds  of  Thistles,  Groundsel,  Dandelion, 
Yellow  Rattle,  and  Dock).  Some  seeds,  such  as  those 
of  Broom-rape  and  Poppy,  are  very  small  and  light,  and 
are  readily  scattered  by  the  agency  of  the  wind.  (See 
Plates  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  Weed  Seeds.) 

(b)  Weed  Seeds  are  Distributed  by  Natural  Agencies. — In 
addition  to  the  transport  of  seeds  by  the  wind  may  be 
mentioned   the  conveyance   by   rivers,   streams,   heavy 
rains,  and  floods  which   often  wash   seeds   away  from 
the  parent  plants  and  carry  them  long  distances. 

Some  seeds,  or  fruits,  bear  numerous  little  hooks 
by  means  of  which  they  become  attached  to  passing 


20  COMMON    WEEDS 

animals,  and  are  rubbed  off  at  a  distance  from  their 
source  (e.g.  Burdock,  Cleavers).  Others  again  are 
devoured  by  animals  and  birds,  and,  being  undigested, 
are  passed  through  the  alimentary  system  unharmed, 
and  deposited  in  the  faeces  perhaps  miles  away  from 
their  original  home.  Birds  frequently  carry  succulent 
fruits  and  seeds  to  favourite  positions  in  order  to  eat 
them  at  leisure,  and  in  various  ways  leave  or  lose  them. 
Squirrels,  mice,  and  other  seed-  or  fruit-eating  animals 
also  aid  in  the  distribution  of  plants  in  a  similar 
manner. 

(c)  Weeds  are  Spread  by  means  of  Seeds  mixed  in 
Samples  of  Agricultural  Seeds. — Either  through  careless- 
ness or  inadvertency  weed  seeds  are  introduced  into 
fields  at  the  time  these  are  seeded  for  a  crop.  Most 
or  all  of  our  agricultural  seeds  are  frequently  impure, 
containing — as  we  shall  see  later — large  numbers  of 
weed  seeds ;  these  are  thus  sown  with  the  good  seed, 
after  which,  in  many  cases,  "  the  tares  and  the  wheat " 
must  grow  together  until  the  harvest.  Although  such 
distribution  of  weeds  is  doubtless  generally  due  to  care- 
lessness, it  is  also  perhaps  frequently  to  be  attributed 
— despite  the  extension  of  present-day  knowledge — to 
ignorance  on  the  part  of  those  chiefly  concerned. 
Perhaps  most  seedsmen  worthy  of  the  name  supply 
good  clean  seed,  but  there  come  into  the  market  many 
samples  which  have  been  only  very  imperfectly  cleaned 
if  at  all,  and  these  find  their  way  through  irresponsible 
dealers  to  many  of  the  farms  of  this  country.  Any 
individual  or  firm  found  to  supply  samples  of  seed 
containing  more  than  the  minimum  of  impurity  should 
be  studiously  ignored. 

Many  weeds  are  introduced  from  other  countries  in 
the  large  quantities  of  clover,  grass,  and  other  seeds 
which  are  imported.  Dodder  especially  is  introduced 


HOW    WEEDS    ARE    SPREAD  21 

from  abroad  in  seeds  used  for  agricultural  purposes 
(see  p.  258).  In  the  Colonies  some  plants  have  been 
introduced  from  Great  Britain,  and,  having  got  out  of 
hand,  have  become  serious  pests. 

(d)  Weeds  are  Spread  in  many  other  Ways.  —  A  few 
examples  will  suffice,  (i)  Couch  or  Twitch  is  spread 
by  the  creeping  rootstock 
(Fig.  i,  a),  or  by  small 
pieces  of  this  adhering 
to  farm  implements,  the 
wheels  of  carts,  and  the 
boots  of  workmen,  these 
pieces  perhaps  falling  in 
a  clean  field  and  starting 
to  grow.  The  Creeping 
Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis) 
and  Bindweed  (Convolvulus 
septum)  may  also  be  dis- 
tributed in  this  way  (Fig. 
i,  c  and  b).  (2)  All  sorts 
of  weeds  are  occasionally 
placed  on  the  dung-heap, 
to  be  taken  at  a  later  date 
to  the  fields,  where  they 
may  form  centres  of  in-  FIG.  i.—  a.  Rootstock  of  Couch  (Triti- 

on      arrniint     of  cum   reens   L>>;    b-  Rootstock   of 

aCCOUnt 


Qreat  Bindweed  (CVww/t/K/wj  J#*K»* 

the     seeds     they    contain.        M;  c.  Roots  of  Creeping  Thistle 

J  (Cnicus  arvensis  Hoffm.).     All  x^. 

(3)     Hay-loft     and     other 

sweepings  are  frequently  a  source  of  trouble,  as  they 
contain  seeds  of  many  undesirable  plants.  If  they 
are  thrown  on  the  dung-heap,  or,  as  often  happens, 
are  used  for  seeding  bare  patches,  the  weed  seeds  which 
are  present  will  rapidly  manifest  their  presence.  (4)  A 
good  example  of  the  manner  in  which  seeds  may  be 
spread  is  that  of  the  5-acre  site  at  the  end  of  the 


22 


COMMON    WEEDS 


Strand  in  London,  which  has  for  several  years  been 
unoccupied  by  buildings.  It  was  found  during  the 
summer  of  1907,  by  a  botanical  representative  of  the 
Graphic?  that  no  less  than  fifty-five  species  of  plants 
had  become  established  since  the  old  buildings  had 


Photo,  1908. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  2. — A  weed-distributing  area :  showing  an  abundance  of  Thistles  and  other 
weeds  in  flower,  and  a  big  crop  of  leaves  of  Coltsfoot.  Photographed  about 
June  on  a  suburban  building  plot. 

been  removed  some  years  previously.  These  may 
have  been  brought  by  the  wind,  or  by  birds,  or  intro- 
duced with  rubbish,  the  contents  of  window-boxes  and 
horses'  nose-bags.  (5)  A  very  common  source  of  infes- 
tation consists  in  the  seeding  of  weeds  in  waste  corners 
on  the  farm,  round  farm  buildings,  and  in  the  neighbour- 

1  Journal  of  Horticulture,  August  8,  1907. 


VITALITY    OF    SEEDS  23 

hood  of  towns  upon  empty  building  plots.  Such  a 
weed-distributing  area  is  well  shown  in  the  photograph 
(Fig.  2).  All  weeds  on  such  spaces  should  be  cut  as 
regularly  as  elsewhere. 


SEEDS  PRODUCED  BY  VARIOUS  WEEDS 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  about  the  manner  in 
which  weeds  are  spread,  it  is  interesting  to  give  a  few 
notes  on  the  number  of  seeds  produced  by  a  single 
flower  or  plant  of  various  weeds.  Below  (p.  24)  is  a  table, 
from  which  it  may  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  many  weeds 
produce  a  prodigious  number  of  seeds,  affording  a  strik- 
ing example  of  the  harm  a  single  plant  may  do.  With 
such  prolific  plants  one  need  no  longer  wonder  at  the 
rapid  increase  and  distribution  of  weeds  when  no  care 
is  taken  to  keep  them  within  bounds.  The  number  of 
seeds  largely  depends  on  the  size  of  the  plants  examined. 
The  different  figures  given  for  the  same  plant  are  the 
result  of  separate  investigation  by  different  authors. 


THE  VITALITY  OF  SEEDS 

Prevention  of  seeding  of  weeds  is  especially  important 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  many  seeds  possess  great 
Vitality,  and  are  able  to  live  on  in  the  soil  under  what 
might  be  considered  adverse  conditions.  One  of  the 
best  known  cases  is  that  of  Charlock  (see  p.  58),  the 
seeds  of  which  may  lie  dormant  in  the  soil  for  many 
years.  De  Candolle  *  believed  that  if  seeds  are  buried 
sufficiently  deeply  in  the  soil,  where  they  would  be 
well  and  continuously  protected  from  the  great  in- 
fluence of  moisture  and  oxygen,  their  vitality  would  be 

1  Physiologic  Vegdtale,  tome  xi.  p.  618.     Paris,  1832. 


Number  of 
Flowers 
to  each 
Plant. 

Number  of 
Seeds 
to  each 
Flower. 

Total  Seeds  for 
a  Single  Plant. 

Common  Groundsel  (Senecio  vul- 

garis)     

30 

10 

3000 

Do. 

... 

20,000^ 

Do. 

130 

... 

6,500^ 

Corn  Cockle  (Agrostemma  Giih- 

ago}         

10 

40 

40oa 

Do. 

7 

2,59?af 

Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  arvensis) 

3,ooo£ 

Do. 

190 

... 

i9,ooo</ 

Do. 

8,169* 

Fool's  Parsley  (ALthttsaCynapiutn} 

300 

2 

6oo# 

Do. 

6,ooor 

Wild  Carrot  (Daucus  Caro(a) 

600 

2 

1  ,  2OOrt 

Do. 

4,ooo-iio,ooo/-' 

Poppy  (Papaver  Rhceas) 

100 

... 

5o,ooo<af 

Do.     (P.  dulrium) 

... 

6o,ooof 

Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis} 

400 

4,ooo</ 

Do. 

1,192^ 

Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale} 

27 

2,  O 

5,400 

Do. 

3,153^ 

Ox-eye    Daisy    (  Chrysanthetmtm 

Leucanthenmm} 

1.300-26,000^ 

Do. 

1,300-4,000^ 

Scentless    Mayweed    (Matricaria 

inodora}          .         .         • 

310,000^ 

Do. 

... 

34,478^ 

Several 

Many 

Broom-rape          .         .         .        . 

... 

hundreds. 

thousands^ 

Very  large 

Dodder         .         .         .         .         . 

4 

numbers. 

Narrow-leaved  Plantain  (Plantago 

lanceolata}       .... 

2,500-15,000^ 

Bindweed  (Convolvuhis  arvensis} 

6ooc 

Cleavers  (Galium  Aparine}. 

... 

i,iooc 

Chick  weed  (Stellaria  media} 

5° 

500^ 

Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara) 

5,000^ 

Corn   Marigold  (Chrysanthemum 

segetum)         .... 

13,500^ 

Burdock  (Arctium  Lappa)   . 

24,520^ 

Shepherd's  Purse  (  CapsellaBursa- 

Pastoris)         .... 

4,500^ 

Goosefoot,    Fat    Hen    (Chenopo- 

dium  album)  .... 

3,123^ 

a  Morton's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  1856,  vol.  ii.  p.  1116. 

b  H.  Dorph-Petersen,  Director,  Danish  Seed  Control  Station.  See  Lands- 
mandsblade.  No.  47,  1906 ;  also  Mitt,  der  Deut.  Land.  Gesell.,  December  12, 
1906,  p.  474. 

c  Maier-Bode,  Die  Bekampfung  der  Acker-  Unkrauter,  1908. 

d  Dr.  Fr.  Nobbe,  Handbuch  der  Samenkunde^  1876. 

e  E.  Korsmo,  Kampe.n  mod  Ugrasset^  1906. 

/  P.  Sorauer,  Pflanzenkrankheiten. 


VITALITY    OF    SEEDS  25 

retained  for  a  much  longer  period  than  usual.  Another 
investigator,  Giglioli,  writing  at  a  much  later  period,1 
says:  " There  is  no  reason  for  denying  the  possibility 
of  the  retention  of  vitality  in  seeds  preserved  during 
many  centuries,  such  as  the  mummy  wheat  and  seeds 
from  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  provided  that  these 
seeds  have  been  preserved  from  the  beginning  in  condi- 
tions unfavourable  to  chemical  change.  .  .  .  The  original 
dryness  of  the  seeds  and  their  preservation  from 
moisture  or  moist  air  must  be  the  very  first  conditions 
for  a  latent  secular  vitality."  All  attempts  to  germinate 
seeds  from  Egyptian  mummy  cases,  however,  appear 
to  have  failed.  Contrary  statements  have  been  made, 
but  these  have  probably  been  based  on  error  or  on 
imperfectly  authenticated  experiment. 

It  has  been  concluded2  that  "The  average  life  of 
seeds,  as  of  plants,  varies  greatly  with  different  families, 
genera,  or  species,  but  there  is  no  relation  between  the 
longevity  of  plants  and  the  viable  period  of  the  seeds 
they  bear.  The  seeds  of  some  plants  lose  their  vitality 
in  a  few  weeks  or  months,  while  others  remain  viable 
for  a  number  of  years." 

A  large  number  of  experiments  show  that  the 
longevity  of  seeds  chiefly  depends  on  moisture  and 
temperature,  well-dried  seeds  maintained  in  a  dry 
atmosphere  at  a  temperature  not  higher  than  37°  C. 
(  =  98.6°  F.)  in  general  retaining  their  vitality  for  con- 
siderable periods.  Specially  dried  vegetable  seeds  put 
up  in  sealed  receptacles  were  taken  by  Captain  Scott  in 
the  steamship  Discovery  in  1901,  and  on  the  return  of 
the  exploring  party  were  found  in  1904,  after  passing 
twice  through  the  tropics  and  being  exposed  to  the  low 

1  Nature,  1895,  pp.  544-5. 

2  The  Vitality  and  Germination  of  Seeds,  Bull.  No.  58,  Bur.  Plant  Indust., 
U.S.  Dept.  Agric.,  1904. 


26  COMMON    WEEDS 

temperature  of  72°  F.  below  freezing-point,  still  to 
possess  high  germinating  powers — radish  92  per  cent, 
lettuce  85  per  cent,  turnip  96  per  cent,  &C.1  All  this 
suggests  that  the  length  of  life  of  many  weed  seeds  may 
be  considerable. 

An  interesting  case  showing  the  length  of  time  seeds 
will  lie  dormant  in  the  soil  and  germinate  when  brought 
to  the  surface  occurred  in  connection  with  the  Yeomanry 
manoeuvres  in  1901.  A  large  rabbit  warren  on  the 
Oxfordshire  hills  was  dug  and  levelled,  no  other  soil 
being  used  nor  seeds  of  any  kind  sown.  Yet  in  1902 
the  whole  surface  produced  a  dense  plant  of  yellow 
Charlock.  In  the  following  year  the  Charlock  died 
down  and  was  succeeded  by  a  mass  of  White  Campion 
(Lychnis  vespertind).  The  seeds  of  both  plants  must  have 
been  buried  in  the  earth  for  an  unknown  period  of 
years,  and  the  disturbance  of  the  soil  enabled  them  to 
germinate.2 

The  number  of  weed  seeds  which  may  be  found  in 
the  soil  of  a  field  is  also  extraordinary.  Korsmo  found 
that  in  i  square  metre  (1.19  square  yard)  of  a  fallow 
field  the  seeds  having  power  of  germination,  to  a  depth 
of  25  centimetres  (9.8  inches),  were  10,332.  This 
was  determined  by  three  different  weedings.  In  a 
field  intended  for  spring  grain,  the  same  crop  having 
been  sown  for  four  successive  years,  no  less  than 
33,574  such  weed  seeds  were  found  per  square  metre. 
In  a  third  field,  which  was  fallowed,  the  seeds  found 
numbered  1,755. 

In  a  good  garden  soil  which  has  been  well  cultivated 
for  at  least  three  years,  few  weeds  having  been  allowed 
to  shed  their  seed  during  that  time,  the  author  measured 
off  j  square  yard  and  removed  all  the  seedling  weeds 

1  The  Times,  6th  December  1904. 

2  Lawns,  Sutton  &  Sons,  p.  9. 


WEEDS    INDICATING    GOOD    LAND         27 

by  hand  on  ijth  May,  1909.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  count  the  seedlings  and  separate  them  roughly  into 
species,  with  the  following  result : — 


Buttercup  (?  chiefly  Ranunculus  repens) 
Annual  Meadow  Grass  (Poa  annua) 
Dock  (Rumex  sp.)    .... 
Goosefoot  (Chenopodium  album?}    . 
Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris)    . 
Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris] 
Annual  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  oleraceus] 
Chickweed  (Stellaria  media}    . 
Persicaria  (Polygonum  Persicarid)  . 
Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis) 
Creeping  Thistle  (Cnicusi  arvnsis]  . 
Plantain  (Plantago  sp.)    . 
Clover  (Tnfoliutn  sp.) 
Various     ...... 

Total 


Number. 

654 
107 
60 
26 
25 
15 
M 
10 

8 

5 

4 

i 

i 

120 


1,050 


In  addition  to  these  were  found  two  plants  of 
Shepherd's  Purse  near  the  seeding  stage,  two  growing 
portions  of  Couch  rhizomes,  and  one  small  potato 
plant. 


WEEDS  AS  INDICATORS  OF  GOOD  AND  POOR  LAND 

Weeds  often  afford  a  very  good  indication  of  the 
character  of  the  soil  on  which  they  grow,  and  to  some 
extent  the  state  of  fertility  or  otherwise  of  the  land. 
For  example,  it  is  well  known  that  Mosses,  Horse-tail 
(Equisetum),  Rushes,  Sedges,  Silver-weed,  and  other  plants 
chiefly  grow  upon  wet,  undrained  land.  Quaking  Grass, 
Ox-eye  Daisy,  Yorkshire  Fog,  Bromus  sterilis,  and  other 
plants  indicate  poor  soils.  Stinging  Nettles,  certain 
Thistles,  Buttercups,  Coltsfoot,  and  others  usually  occur 
on  good  land.  It  may  perhaps  be  said  as  a  general 


28 


COMMON    WEEDS 


Damp  Soils. 

Poor  Soils. 

Rushes 

Quaking  Grass 

Sedges 

Yorkshire  Fog 

Horse-tail 

Sterile  Brome  Grass 

Silver-weed 

Ox-eye  Daisy 

Tussock  Grass 

(Absence  of  Clover) 

Certain  Mosses 

Dyer's  Green-weed 

Cowslips 

Sheep's  Sorrel 

Butter-bur 

Rest  Harrow 

Knot-grass 

Spurrey 

Lady's  Smock 

Ragwort 

Meadow  sweet 

Ragged  Robin 

rule  that  the  weeds  referred  to  below  indicate  damp, 
poor,  and  good  soils  respectively. 

Good  Soils. 

Buttercups 

Certain  Thistles 

Coltsfoot 

Stinging  Nettles 

Groundsel 

Goosefoot  or  Fat  Hen 

Cleavers 

Dandelion 

Chickweed 

Sow  Thistle 


It  is,  however,  not  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  a 
soil  is  poor  merely  because  certain  of  the  weeds  in- 
cluded in  the  above  list  are  plentiful :  the  list  given  is 
not  arbitrary  and  absolute,  but  general  and  suggestive. 
The  character  of  the  land  is  not  only  indicated  in  some 
sense  by  the  weeds  which  are  present,  but  largely  also 
by  their  manner  of  growth.  Large,  strong  Thistles,  for 
example,  and  large  elegant  Buttercups  and  Cowslips, 
only  grow  on  good  land — on  poor  land  such  plants 
will  generally  be  much  smaller  or  stunted  in  growth. 

Spurrey,  Corn  Marigold,  Sheep's  Sorrel,  Cornflower, 
and  small  Bindweed  are  common  on  sandy  soils  ; 
Burnet,  Bladder  Campion,  Chicory,  Viper's  Bugloss,  and 
others  are  characteristic  of  calcareous  soils  ;  while  most 
of  the  weeds  enumerated  above  under  "  good  soils " 
are  common  on  loamy  soils.  The  soils  on  which  the 
various  weeds  grow  will  be  dealt  with  in  subsequent 
chapters. 


CHAPTER  III 

GENERAL  PREVENTIVE  AND  REMEDIAL  MEASURES 

"  I  will  go  root  away 

The  noisome  weeds,  that  without  profit  suck 
The  soil's  fertility  from  wholesome  flowers." 

— SHAKESPEARE,  Richard  II. ,  Act  iii.  sc.  4. 

IN  considering  how  to  eradicate  a  particular  weed  it 
is  well  first  of  all  to  discover  what  is  its  life  history 
and  how  it  is  distributed,  as  these  conditions  will  influ- 
ence the  method  adopted  in  order  to  suppress  it.  The 
difference  between  Couch  and  Charlock,  or  between 
Charlock  and  Sheep's  Sorrel,  for  example,  is  very 
marked,  and  upon  these  differences  must  be  based  the 
means  to  check  the  plants.  All  weeds  should  be  at- 
tacked at  their  weakest  or  most  vulnerable  period, 
which  can  only  be  determined  when  their  complete  life 
history  is  known. 

It  will  be  useful  to  examine  the  general  methods  of 
combating  weeds  as  a  body,  and  these  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  Prevention  and  Remedy. 

PREVENTION 

Under  this  heading  may  be  included  such  operations 
as  cultivation,  rotations,  sowing  of  clean  seed,  and 
prevention  of  seeding  of  weeds. 

(a)  Good  Cultivation. — It  should  at  the  outset  be 
strongly  emphasised  that  good  cultivation  of  the 
highest  order  is  not  only  largely  conducive  to  the 

suppression  of  weeds,  annual  and  perennial  alike,  but 

29 


3o  COMMON    WEEDS 

is  perhaps  of  greater  importance  in  the  growth  of  good 
crops  than  any  other  factor  in  practical  agriculture. 
In  dealing  with  insect  infestation  Professor  Somerville 
writes :  "  Using  the  term  in  its  widest  sense,  good 
cultivation  will  be  found  to  be  the  best  protection  that 
the  farmer  or  gardener  can  offer  his  crops  against  the 
ravages  of  insects."  This  remark  applies  with  equal 
force  to  weeds ;  in  fact,  one  of  the  chief  reasons  that 
good  cultivation  is  valuable  in  keeping  down  noxious 
insects  is  that  weeds  are  destroyed,  besides  which  the 
soil  is  rendered  friable,  open  and  mellow,  and  is  better 
able  to  grow  a  healthy  crop  which  will  tend  to  resist 
the  growth  of  weeds.  Autumn  cultivation  is  especially 
valuable,  many  roots  of  weeds  being  then  exposed  to 
frost,  arid  so  destroyed,  while  seedlings  are  buried. 

(b).  Growth  of  Dense  Crops. — The  growth  of  dense 
heavy  crops,  such  as  vetches,  lucerne,  sainfoin,  and 
maize,  largely  tends  to  suppress  weeds,  for  once  such 
crops  are  well  established  they  choke  out  weeds.  A 
good  " take"  of  lucerne  is  especially  useful,  since,  owing 
to  its  rapid  growth,  it  not  only  tends  to  smother  weeds, 
but  as  it  is  cut  several  times  during  the  summer  months 
weeds  are  also  cut  and  seeding  is  prevented.  Maize  is 
useful  on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  is  well  hoed  and 
cleaned,  and  provides  an  abundance  of  shade. 

(c)  Prevention  of  Seeding. — This  is  one  of  the  chief 
means  of  combating  weeds,  and  is  usually  most  easily 
managed  by  cutting  them  down  just  before  or  at  the 
time  of  flowering,  or  whenever  they  are  of  sufficient  size 
to  be  readily  cut  or  mown.  On  grass  land  the  mowing 
machine  may  be  run  over  infested  fields  without  much 
trouble  two  or  three  times  during  summer. 

A  box  attachment  for  reaping  machines  and  binders, 
by  which  seeds  shaken  out  in  the  process  of  cutting 
cereal  crops  are  caught,  is  a  useful  means  of  reducing 


PREVENTIVE    MEASURES  31 

the  number  of  weed  seeds  which  are  shed  broadcast  in 
the  harvest  field. 

The  number  of  seeds  produced  by  various  weeds  is 
dealt  with  at  pp.  23—4.  As  an  example,  we  may  note 
here  that  "  a  single  red  Poppy,  left  undisturbed,  may 
ripen  more  than  40,000  seeds,  each  capable  of  produc- 
ing a  successor.  In  something  less  than  seven  years 
that  one  Poppy  could  produce  plants  enough  to  occupy 
every  inch  of  the  thirty  and  odd  million  acres  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  with  red  Poppies.  The  cardinal  point 
in  weeding,  then,  is  to  prevent  seeding."  l 

Percival  writes  that  "  A  single  Poppy  plant  fre- 
quently bears  more  than  twenty  flowers,  and  each  of 
these  may  produce  two  or  three  hundred  seeds.  Similar 
enormous  increase  is  met  with  in  Groundsel,  Sow  Thistle, 
Campion,  Charlock,  and  practically  all  annuals." 

These  figures,  and  the  table  at  p.  24,  clearly  de- 
monstrate that  the  prevention  of  seeding  is  most 
important,  and  deserves  the  closest  attention  of  all 
connected  with  agriculture. 

(d)  Sowing  Clean  Seed. — The  manner  in  which  weeds 
are  introduced  through  the  medium  of  agricultural 
seeds  has  already  been  dealt  with.  It  is  abundantly 
clear  that  if  impure  seeds  be  sown  all  the  preventive 
and  remedial  measures  combined  will  not  avail  to  keep 
a  farm,  garden,  or  lawn  clean  and  free  from  weeds. 
Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  this  matter, 
which  is  not  sufficiently  recognised,  although  more 
pains  are  now  taken  by  seed  merchants  to  supply  clean 
seed  than  was  formerly  the  case.  But,  as  Mr.  Primrose 
M'Connell  has  said,2  it  would  be  interesting  to  know 
what  becomes  of  all  the  second  and  third  year  old  seed. 
Agricultural  seeds  which  contain  more  than  a  very 

1  Vinton's  Handbooks  of  the  Farm,  "The  Crops,"  p.  136. 

2  Diary  of  a  Working  Farmer. 


32  COMMON    WEEDS 

small  percentage  of  dead  or  weak  seeds  will,  if  sown, 
cover  the  ground  far  from  completely,  and  this  is 
offering  a  premium  on  the  spread  of  weeds,  which 
tend  to  grow  more  strongly  in  the  absence  of  a  heavy 
cultivated  crop.  The  presence  of  but  i  per  cent  of 
Dock  seed  in  a  mixture  of  grass  and  clover  seed  means 
no  less  than  ten  or  more  Dock  plants  per  square  yard 'all  over 
the  field  whenever  such  a  sample  is  sown  at  the  ordi- 
nary rate  for  leys.1 

(e)  Rotation  of  Crops. — In  the  management  of  a  farm 
rotations  are  of  very  great  value  for  several  reasons, 
only  one  of  which  need  be  mentioned  here.  The 
change  of  crops  due  to  rotations  affords  an  oppor- 
tunity of  cleaning  the  land.  When  an  area  is  sown 
with  wheat  in  autumn  and  the  crop  is  not  harvested 
until  the  following  August  it  is  obvious  that  little  can  be 
done  in  the  way  of  suppressing  weeds,  except  in  the  case 
of  Thistles,  Docks,  and  one  or  two  other  large  weeds 
which  may  be  removed  by  hand,  or  Charlock,  which  can 
be  destroyed  by  spraying.  In  certain  cases,  however, 
corn  crops  are  hoed  when  young,  while  harrowing  in 
spring  to  destroy  annuals  is  extremely  useful.  After 
the  end  of  May  little  can  be  done,  and  the  crop  and 
land  must  be  left  untouched  until  the  harvest,  by 
which  time  many  weeds  will  have  shed  their  seeds. 
When,  however,  wheat  land  is  ploughed  up,  left  to 
mellow  during  winter,  well  cultivated  in  spring,  and 
then  used  for  taking  a  root  crop,  an  opportunity 
occurs  for  suppressing  weeds.  During  spring  and 
summer  especially,  when  the  previous  year's  seeds 
germinate,  hand  and  horse  hoeing  are  employed  to 
keep  the  weeds  well  in  hand,  and  seeding  is  almost 
entirely  prevented.  The  rotation  of  crops  commonly 
followed,  by  which  a  root  crop  is  taken  once  in  four 

1  Leaflet  No.  112,  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries. 


PREVENTIVE    MEASURES  33 

years,  largely  conduces,  when  thoroughly  carried  out,  to 
the  destruction  of  weeds,  and  results  in  a  clean  farm. 

(/")  Thorough  Brushing  of  Hedges  and  Ditches  is  a 
valuable  preventive  measure,  many  weeds  being  de- 
stroyed which  would  otherwise  distribute  their  seeds 
and  harbour  insect  and  fungous  pests. 

(g)  Screenings  from  Thrashing  Machines,  Winnowing 
Machines,  and  Mills  should  be  thoroughly  ground  before 
they  are  fed  to  live  stock.  It  is  well  known  that  weed 
seeds  may  pass  through  the  digestive  system  unharmed, 
and  hence  they  should  not  be  given  to  stock,  whole. 
In  Korsmo's  experiments,  two  lots  of  mill  screenings, 
which  contained  from  25  to  47  pep  cent  of  weed 
seeds,  were  ground,  and  the  samples  then  examined 
for  weed  seeds.  In  100  grams  ( =  3 J  ozs.)  of  the 
ground  screenings  only  one  weed  seed  was  found 
capable  of  germinating. 

Before  coming  on  to  a  farm  a  thrashing  machine 
should  always  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the  wise 
farmer  will  insist  on  this  being  done,  otherwise  it 
is  quite  likely  that  many  weed  seeds  will  be  brought 
on  to  his  land. 

REMEDY 

From  what  has  already  been  said  under  "  Preven- 
tion "  it  will  be  gathered  that  at  many  points  "  Pre- 
vention "  and  "Remedy"  are  almost  identical,  since 
cultivation,  prevention  of  seeding,  brushing  of  hedges 
and  ditches,  all  tend  to  eradicate  weeds  as  well  as 
prevent  future  infestation.  No  hard  and  fast  line  can 
be  drawn  between  the  two,  and  a  certain  amount  of 
overlapping  will  of  necessity  occur  in  the  suggestions 
already  made  and  those  which  follow. 

(a)  Thorough  Cultivation  :  Ploughing,  Harrowing,  Hoeing, 
&c. — Not  only  does  cultivation  in  the  broadest  sense 

c 


34  COMMON    WEEDS 

tend  to  prevent  the  growth  of  many  seeds,  but  such 
cultivation  must  frequently  be  employed  without  fail 
if  weeds  are  to  be  eradicated.  Perhaps  the  large 
majority  of  weeds  are  destroyed  when  ploughed  under. 
Scarifying  and  harrowing  may  drag  out  Couch,  Bind- 
weed, and  Creeping  Thistle,  which  may  then  be 
drawn  together  for  burning  by  means  of  a  stout  horse- 
rake  ;  harrowing  leaves  many  weeds  on  the  surface 
to  be  scorched  by  the  sun  or  destroyed  by  frost  ; 
hoeing  by  hand  or  by  horse  labour,  especially  when 
the  weeds  are  in  the  seedling  stage,  is  one  of  the  most 
efficient  and  common  means  of  destroying  weeds  ; 
and  all  the  tillage  operations  are  calculated  to 
ameliorate  the  soil  and  render  it  more  fit  to  grow 
the  cultivated  crop. 

Another  efficient  remedy  consists  in  surface  cultivation 
in  spring  in  order  to  destroy  seedlings.  The  production 
of  a  fine  tilth  encourages  dormant  seeds  to  germinate, 
and  as  soon  as  these  are  fairly  started  the  applica- 
tion of  light  harrows,  the  American  Weeder,  Poppy 
Destroyer,  or  in  gardens  the  hoe  (Fig.  5),  effectually 
destroys  them.  By  this  means  very  large  numbers  of 
annuals  are  killed,  and  many  perennials  also  which  are 
exposed  to  late  frosts.  The  process  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  repeated  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  weeks,  and  may  be  practised  on  young 
corn  crops  with  great  advantage  until  quite  late  in 
spring.  The  Poppy  Destroyer  (Fig.  3)  is  an  example  of 
an  implement  specially  designed  to  eradicate  a  surface- 
growing  annual. 

(b)  Fallowing  and  Fallow  Crops. — As  a  means  of  de- 
stroying weeds  bare  fallowing  is  of  much  value,  for  owing 
to  the  repeated  ploughing,  harrowing,  and  rolling  which 
the  land  receives  weed  seeds  successively  germinate,  but 
are  prevented  from  establishing  themselves  and  are 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES  35 

killed.  Perennial  weeds,  such  as  Couch  and  Docks, 
are  dragged  to  the  surface,  sun-dried  and  burned.  In 
connection  with  bare  fallowing,  however,  it  must  be 
noted  that  a  covering  of  annual  weeds  may  be  of  value 
in  retaining  nitrates  in  a  highly  pervious  soil,  instead  of 
allowing  them  to  be  carried  into  the  subsoil  drains  and 
lost.  Care  must  be  taken,  in  any  case,  that  the  weeds 
are  ploughed  under  before  they  have  time  to  seed,  and 


FIG.  3. — Poppy  Killer — used  for  light  surface  cultivation.     (After  a  photograph 
published  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture. ) 

this  is  accomplished  by  two  or  more  successive  plough- 
ings.  Bare  fallowing,  however,  is  not  practised  to  the 
extent  it  used  to  be — and  rightly  so — the  introduction 
of  a  fallow  or  catch  crop  serving  the  double  purpose 
of  retaining  nitrates  in  the  soil  and  destroying  weeds. 
Good  farming  will,  in  general,  keep  land  sufficiently 
free  from  weeds  as  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  a  bare 
fallow  for  the  purpose  of  eradicating  them.  On  very 
heavy  land,  however,  bare  fallowing  is  practised  on 
account  of  its  great  value  in  the  general  improvement 
of  the  soil,  and  in  wet  seasons,  on  certain  land,  its 
practice  may  be  essential ;  and  where  heavy  land  is 
very  weedy,  bare  fallowing  is  a  certain  means  of 
"  cleaning  up." 

Where  lighter  land  has  become  very  foul  with 
weeds  a  catch  crop  may  well  replace  bare  fallow. 
Spring  ploughing,  followed  by  successive  harrowings  to 
destroy  the  successive  crops  of  annual  weeds,  may  end 


36  COMMON    WEEDS 

in  a  final  ploughing  between  mid-May  and  mid-June, 
when  the  drill  may  deposit  rape  and  mustard.  These 
crops  grow  rapidly,  and  largely  tend  to  smother  weeds, 
which  can  be  ploughed  under  with  them  later  in  the 
season,  thus  giving  a  good  green  manuring.  Or  sheep 
may  be  fed  on  the  crop  with  cake,  the  plough  following, 
when  many  deep-rooted  plants  may  be  destroyed.  A 
heavy  crop  of  winter  vetches  may  then  be  grown  and 
be  cut,  with  the  contained  weeds,  in  the  succeeding 
spring,  the  following  crop  being  late  turnips.  Some 
such  procedure  will  both  enrich  and  improve  the  soil, 
and  eradicate  or  immensely  reduce  the  weeds.  Useful 
catch  crops  are  lupins,  vetches,  rape,  mustard,  serra- 
della,  green  rye,  and  trifolium. 

(c)  Mowing,  Spudding,  &c. — It  is  a  useful  practice  to 
run  the  mowing  machine  over  grass  land  where  Thistles, 


FIG.  4.— Thistle  and  Bracken  Cutter  (Allan  &  Sons). 

Knapweed,  and  other  weeds  prevail,  and  this  may  be 
done  two  or  three  times  during  the  summer  months. 
Special  machines,  e.g.  the  Thistle  Cutter  (Fig.  4),  are 
sold  for  a  similar  purpose.  Many  of  these  are  very 
useful,  and  can  be  easily  managed  by  a  lad. 

The  spud  is  extremely  useful  in  many  cases,  for  by 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES 


37 


its  aid  Thistles,  Plantains,  Dandelions,  and  other  strong- 
rooted    plants    may  be   cut   off   clean   just    below  the 


FIG.  5. — A  group  of  implements  useful  in  eradicating  weeds  and  preventing  them 
from  seeding,  x.  Triangular  Hoe,  useful  in  seed  beds.  2.  Ordinary  Hce  for 
general  work.  3.  Dutch  Hoe  for  "  push  "  work,  cutting  weeds  off  well  below 
the  surface,  and  stirring  the  soil  deeply.  4.  Hand-weeding  Fork  for  garden 
work — also  used  with  a  long  handle,  or  with  the  broad  prongs  turned  the 
other  way,  not  "flat."  5.  Ordinary  Spud,  and  6.  Spud  with  a  "hook" — 
both  useful  for  cutting  off  weeds  in  all  sorts  of  positions.  7.  Sickle  or  Hook 
useful  for  brushing  along  hedgerows  and  ditches,  cutting  down  tall  weeds 
round  farm  buildings,  thistles  and  other  weeds  in  fields,  &c.  8  and  9.  Two 
forms  of  Weed  Grubs,  useful  for  removing  daisies,  &c. ,  from  lawns. 

surface  of  the  ground.     A  spud  attached  to  the  end  of 
a  stick  (see  Fig.   5)  is  a  handy  tool  for  cutting  down 


COMMON    WEEDS 


weeds  met  with    in   the  course  of  daily  walks  on  the 

farm.  Certain  forms  of  mat- 
tock are  useful  for  destroying 
weeds,  and  for  earthing  up 
potatoes  (Fig.  6)  ;  while  the 
bagging-  or  fagging-hook  is 
very  handy  for  cutting 
Thistles  and  other  weeds  on 
small  areas  of  grass  land, 
trimming  round  farm  build- 
ings and  along  hedgerows 
and  ditches  (Fig.  5). 

Hand   pulling    must    fre- 
quently be  adopted   as  the 
only  feasible  means  of   re- 
weeds,     especially 


FIG.  6. — Two  types  cf  implements  use- 
ful for  eradicating  weeds :  a.  a  type  in  the    Case    of    tall    Species 
of  Mattock  used  in  Germany  ;  b.  a  .  - 
more  common  form  of  Mattock,  m  COm     and     Other     crops. 

£  Before  the   introduction   of 


weeds  deeply,  and  well  stirring  the    copper    Sulphate    as    a    Spray 

against   Charlock    the   later 

crops  of  this  weed  were  commonly  removed  by  hand, 
and  we  have  spent 
many  a  day  at  such 
work.  Other  tall 
weeds,however,must 
still  be  dealt  with  by 
hand  when  infest- 
ing cereals,  young 
lucerne,  and  similar 
crops. 

On        lawns        and    FIG.  7.—  The"  Buco"  Hand  Cultivatcr,  employed 

in  the  West  Indies  as  hoe,  fork  or  rake.     Sold 

teiiniS-COUrtS  VariOUS          by  the  Barbados  Cooperative  Cotton  Factory. 

daisy     grubbers     and 

weed  extractors  may  be  very  helpful  (Fig.  5) ;   and  in 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES 


39 


garden  beds  the  small  hand  fork  is  useful  (Fig.  5). 
An  implement  found  useful  in  the  West  Indies  for 
general  hand  cultivation  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  7. 

(d)  Special  Methods. — In  eradicating  many  weeds  special 
means  are  necessary.  Draining  is  often  of  much  value 
in  the  case  of  Mosses,  Horse-tails,  Sedges,  Rushes,  and 
other  weeds  which  grow  in  damp,  low-lying  situations. 

Irrigation. — It  has  been  observed  that  irrigation  may 
frequently  bring  about  an  improvement  in  the  herbage 
of  grass  land,  and  where  it  is  possible  the  question  of 
its  practice  should  be  considered.  In  a  meadow  on 
the  banks  of  the  Churn,  near  Cirencester,  only  one-half 
of  which  could  be  covered  with  water,  observations 
were  made 1  by  Professor  Buckman  on  the  effects  of 
irrigation  after  two  years  and  four  years  respectively. 
The  results  are  given  in  the  following  table  : — 


Proportions. 

Botanical  Name. 

Common  Name. 

fij 

-*•  J^"    r* 

!'£  • 

O  *•* 

nr^  o 

fcT  o 

$| 

!J1 

u  £  - 

S  rt  rt 

Alopecurus  pratensis 

Meadow  Foxtail 

i 

2 

4 

Poa  pratensis 

Field  Meadow-grass 

2 

3 

4 

,,     trivialis 

Rough  Meadow-grass 

I 

2 

i 

Cynosurus  cristatus 

Dogstail 

2 

I 

Dactylis  glomerata 

Cocksfoot 

I 

2 

3 

Avena  flavescens 

Yellow  Oat-grass 

2 

3 

3 

Lolium  perenne 

Perennial  Ryegrass 

2 

4 

6 

Tri  folium  pratense 

Broad  Clover 

I 

2 

2 

,,        re  pens 

Dutch  Clover 

2 

... 

*Briza  media                        Quaking  Grass 

2 

... 

*Aira  caespitosa 

Hassock-grass 

I 

*Agrostis  stolonifera 

Marsh  Bent-grass 

I 

2 

3 

*Avena  pubescens 

Downy  Oat-grass                      i 

I                      I 

*Hordeum  pratense 
*Ranunculus  acris 

Meadow  Barley-grass 
Acrid  Buttercup 

I 
I 

2 

3 

2 

I 

,  ,          bulbosus 

Bulbous  Buttercup 

3 

I 

*Plantago  lanceolata 

Ribwort  Plantain 

3 

I 

I 

,,       media 

Broad-leaved  Plantain            3 

*Anthriscus  vulgaris 

Common  Beaked  Parsley 

i 

2 

I 

1  "  The  Natural  History  of  British  Grasses,"  Prof.  James  Buckman  :  Jour. 
Roy.  Agric.  Soc.,  1855. 


4o  COMMON    WEEDS 

It  will  be  observed  from  these  figures  that  a  number 
of  the  better  grasses  were  much  increased,  several  being 
three  or  four  times  as  plentiful  as  before  irrigation. 
Dutch  clover  disappeared,  but  after  two  years  broad 
clover  was  doubled.  As  regards  weeds  (marked  with 
an  asterisk),  several  of  the  worst  had  disappeared  after 
four  years,  while  others  were  much  reduced.  In  short, 
Buckman  remarked  that  the  field  on  which  the  experi- 
ment was  made  was  "  trebled  in  value  in  four  years." 

Feeding-off  with  sheep  may  occasionally  be  employed 
to  suppress  weeds,  such  as  Ragwort  and  Spurrey,  but 
the  operation  should  always  take  place  before  the  time 
the  seeds  ripen.  It  is  known  that  sheep  eat  certain 
plants  which  cattle  reject,  such  as  Ragwort  (Senecio 
Jacobcea),  Knapweed  (Centaurea  m'gra),  and  Ox-eye  Daisy 
(Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum).  It  may  therefore  be 
useful  to  run  a  few  sheep  with  the  larger  stock  on 
pastures  where  these  weeds  abound. 

Spraying  with  plant  poisons  is  a  valuable  method  of 
suppressing  weeds  ;  for  example,  Charlock  in  young 
corn  crops  can  be  destroyed  by  means  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  Wild  Onion  has  been  largely  reduced  by  the 
use  of  carbolic  acid,  and  Dodder  by  the  use  of  several 
chemical  preparations. 

The  sulphates  of  copper  and  iron,  salt,  carbolic  acid, 
arsenite  of  soda,  and  other  materials  have  all  been  used 
for  the  destruction  of  weeds.  In  an  experiment  on  a 
very  weedy  plot  of  wheat  at  the  North  Dakota  Experi- 
ment Station1  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
was  used  on  June  ist  when  the  wheat  was  3  to  5 
inches  high,  "  the  principal  weeds  being  Charlock,  Wild 
Barley,  Wild  Rose,  Penny  Cress,  Shepherd's  Purse,  Wild 
Buckwheat,  Lamb's  Quarter,  and  Great  Ragweed."  On 
August  8th  "  all  the  weeds  except  the  Wild  Rose  and  the 

1   U.S.  Dept.  Agric.,  Farmers'  Bull.  124. 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES  41 

older  plants  of  Penny  Cress  were  dead."  Although 
some  of  the  leaf  tips  of  the  wheat  were  slightly  burned, 
"  the  yield  of  grain  was  considerably  larger  than  from 
an  equal  unsprayed  area."  The  question  of  destroying 
weeds  by  spraying  is  more  fully  discussed  at  p.  43. 

Ploughing  weeds  under  is  usually  satisfactory  where 
weeds  are  getting  the  upper  hand,  especially  where 
annuals  are  concerned,  but  this  should  be  before  seeding 
takes  place.  In  garden  cultivation  weeds  may  be  deeply 
buried  when  trenching  is  done  ;  even  Couch,  Bindweed, 
and  Creeping  Thistle  may  be  dealt  with  in  this  way,  as 
we  have  proved,  but  the  work  must  be  well  done.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  Couch  might  well  be  piled  in 
large  heaps  and  rotted  for  manure  (see  p.  3). 

Use  of  Tarred  Paper. — A  plan  much  recommended  in 
the  United  States  for  eradicating  patches  of  perennial 
weeds,  like  Creeping  Thistle  and  Stinging  Nettle,  is  to 
cover  the  whole  surface  with  large  sheets  of  strong 
tarred  paper  in  order  to  exclude  light.  The  paper  may 
be  pegged  down  and  have  a  few  stones  placed  on  the 
top.  This  method  is  stated  to  be  of  great  value  and 
very  effective. 

"  Lawn  sands,"  the  basis  of  which  appears  generally 
to  be  sand  and  sulphate  of  ammonia,  are  largely  used 
for  the  improvement  of  lawns,  the  finer  grasses  being 
encouraged,  and  the  weeds  suppressed  or  choked  out. 
Such  treatment  occasionally  has  an  almost  marvellous 
effect. 

Manuring  is  a  valuable  aid  in  the  war  against  weeds, 
land  in  high  condition  enabling  the  crop  to  hold  its 
own.  Grass  land  is  rapidly  improved  by  the  use  of 
manures  (see  Chap.  V.),  and  liming  is  frequently  of 
great  value,  especially  in  combating  Sheep's  Sorrel, 
Corn  Marigold,  Spurrey,  and  some  other  weeds. 

It  was  shown  many  years  ago  by  Heinrich's  experi- 


42 


COMMON    WEEDS 


ments  that  mineral  manures  tend  to  reduce  weeds  to  a 
minimum  ;  nitrogenous  manures  favoured  the  growth  of 
weeds,  which  attained  their  most  vigorous  growth  on 
undunged  land.  His  results  may  be  given  thus:1 — 


Undunged 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia 
Nitrate  of  Soda 
Sulphate  of  Magnesia 
Common  Salt  . 
Sulphate  of  Potash 
Carbonate  of  Lime 
Quicklime 
Superphosphate 
Gypsum   . 


Percentage  of  Weeds 
contained  in  the  Crop. 


30.0 

26.0 

i  o.o 

7.0 

5-5 

4-9 

4-5 

4-4 

1-9 


Collection  of  Weeds  by  School  Children. — Dr.  Ewart, 
Government  Botanist,  Victoria,  called  attention  last 
year2  to  a  plan  for  suppressing  weeds  which  is  worthy 
of  consideration.  It  consists  in  offering  prizes  to  school 
children  for  collecting  certain  weeds,  and  Dr.  Ewart 
mentions  an  instance  in  which,  after  prizes  were  offered 
by  the  police  magistrate  at  some  (then  recent)  prose- 
cutions under  the  Thistle  Act,  12,000  plants  of  Ragwort 
were  brought  in  during  the  first  four  days,  and  this 
number  quickly  rose  to  nearly  20,000  plants. 

In  both  preventive  and  remedial  treatment,  however, 
each  case  must  be  taken  on  its  merits,  and  after  con- 
sideration of  the  individual  conditions  concerned  ;  at 
the  same  time  it  must  be  emphasised  that  if  good  results 
are  to  be  obtained,  perseverance  and  faithful  attention 
to  the  principles  involved  (not  forgetting  the  life  history 
of  the  plant)  are  essential. 


1  Dr.  Fr.  Nobbe,  Handbuch  der  Samenkunde,  1876,  p.  578. 

2  Jour.  Dept.  Agric.,  Victoria,  August  10,  1908. 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES  43 

THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  WEEDS  BY  MEANS  OF 
CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES 

Up  to  comparatively  recent  times  the  methods 
adopted  by  the  farmer  and  gardener  for  the  eradication 
of  weeds  were  largely  those  which  aim  at  removing  or 
disturbing  the  latter  by  mechanical  means.  The  weeds 
were  ploughed  under,  harrowed  out  when  young  and 
allowed  to  dry  in  the  sun,  pulled  up  by  hand,  or  cut 
off  with  hoes,  spuds,  scythes,  and  other  similar  im- 
plements, in  the  manner  already  described. 

During  the  last  few  years,  however,  attention  has 
been  drawn  to  the  possible  destruction  of  weeds  on  a 
large  scale  by  the  application  of  various  chemical  sub- 
stances, either  in  solution  in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray, 
or  in  a  powdered  state. 

The  materials  chiefly  employed  are  ammonium  sul- 
phate, common  salt,  carbolic  acid,  sodium  arsenite,  and 
the  sulphates  of  iron  and  copper.  The  two  latter  com- 
pounds have  proved  the  most  effective  for  practical 
farm  purposes,  the  rest  being  only  applicable  in  ex- 
ceptional cases. 

i.  Ammonium  Sulphate  is  a  well-known  fertiliser  con- 
taining nitrogen,  and  extensively  used  in  small  amounts 
up  to  i  or  1 1  cwt.  per  acre  for  the  manuring  of 
cereals,  root  crops,  and  grass  land.  In  larger  doses 
it  checks  the  growth  of  vegetation  for  a  time,  or  kills  it 
altogether.  When  spread  in  considerable  quantities  it 
prevents  the  germination  of  seeds,  and  when  mixed  with 
sand  or  brick  dust  it  is  much  used  to  destroy  Plantains, 
Daisies,  and  other  weeds  on  lawns  and  small  plots  of 
grass.  The  weeds  are  checked  or  killed,  and  the  grass, 
although  at  first  more  or  less  damaged,  is  stimulated  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  soon  chokes  out  the  weeds. 

WThen    placed    upon    the    cut    ends    of    Dandelions, 


44  COMMON    WEEDS 

Docks,  and  other  strong-rooted  plants  left  in  the  ground 
ammonium  sulphate  tends  to  destroy  them.  (See  also 
p.  346.) 

2.  Common   Salt  is   a   deliquescent   substance  which 
extracts  water  from  damp  air  and  surrounding  objects 
with   which   it   may   be  brought   into   contact.     When 
applied  to  succulent  plant  tissues  it  draws  water  from 
them    and    produces    an    effect    similar    to    drying    or 
scorching  ;    leaves   to    which    it   is  applied   are    killed, 
and  look  as  if  they  had  been  burnt.     Salt  may  be  used 
on  a   small   scale   for   the    destruction  of    Nettles  and 
other  weeds,  and  its  application  has  been  found  bene- 
ficial in  checking  weeds  and  indirectly  improving  the 
useful    herbage    of    grass    land.       The    semi-parasites 
Yellow  Rattle  (Rhinanthus)  and  Louse  wort  (Pedicularis) 
are  reduced  by  it. 

3.  Carbolic    Acid,     I     pint     thoroughly    mixed    with 
4    pints    of    water,   has    been    found    a    very  efficient 
weed  killer.      It  is  most  frequently  used  on  small  areas, 
at  the  rate  of  8  gallons  per  square  rod.     It  was  found 
at  the  Woburn  Experiment  Station  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural  Society  that  Wild  Onion  (Allium  vineale)  may 
be  destroyed  by  carbolic  acid  (see  pp.  126,  209). 

4.  Sodium  Arsenite. — This  substance,  or  allied  com- 
pounds   of   arsenic,  is  the  basis  of  many  of  the  pro- 
prietary weed-killers  sold  by  chemists  and  nurserymen. 
It   is  one  of   the  most   effective  of   all    plant   poisons, 
but  cannot  be  used  for  weeds  on  cultivated  ground  or 
on  grain  land,  because  it  not  only  destroys  weeds  but 
kills  all  other  vegetation  as  well,  and   prevents  crops 
from  being  grown  on  that  soil  for  a  considerable  time 
afterwards.      It  may  be  properly  used  on  paths,  gravel 
courts,  and  similar  places  where  vegetation  of  all  kinds 
is  out  of  place.      Its  highly  poisonous   and  dangerous 
character,  however,  precludes  it  from  general  use. 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES  45 

5.  The  Sulphates  of  Iron  and  Copper  have  been  very 
extensively  employed  on  arable  land  for  the  destruction 
of  weeds  among  corn  and  other  crops,  and  these  sub- 
stances may  be  regarded  as  the  only  materials  at 
present  of  practical  importance  for  such  purposes. 

To  be  effective  they  must  be  applied  in  solution 
and  absorbed  by  the  tissues  of  the  plants,  and  as  such 
solutions  have  only  a  local  action  and  are  not  dis- 
tributed through  the  body  of  the  plant  as  materials 
absorbed  by  roots  would  be,  the  whole  or  a  great  part 
of  the  leaf-surface  of  the  plant  must  be  wetted  if  the 
weeds  are  to  be  killed.  Moreover,  since  the  only  parts 
which  can  be  got  at  are  the  leaves  and  stems  above 
ground,  spraying  is  most  effective  upon  weeds  of  annual 
duration  which  have  no  reproductive  machinery  upon 
their  roots.  Perennials  which  maintain  a  store  of  food 
in  tubers,  and  thickened  rhizomes  and  similar  struc- 
tures in  the  soil,  cannot  be  readily  destroyed  by 
applications  of  poisons  to  their  leaves,  for  after  the 
latter  have  been  destroyed  fresh  stems  and  leaves  may 
be  sent  up  from  buds  on  the  underground  parts. 

Even  when  solutions  are  applied  to  the  sub-aerial 
leaves  and  stems,  the  result  depends  not  only  upon  the 
nature  of  the  chemical  substances  and  the  strength  of 
the  solution  used,  but  also  upon  the  kind  of  plant,  its 
habit  of  growth,  the  stage  of  development  which  it  has 
reached,  and  other  factors.  As  a  rule,  the  young  grow- 
ing points  of  the  stems  of  plants  are  enclosed  in  the 
interior  of  buds,  or  are  protected,  as  in  the  grasses,  by 
the  surrounding  leaf-sheaths.  While  the  older  exposed 
leaves  may  be  killed,  the  weed  may  still  be  able  to  grow 
from  its  protected  buds  and  to  perfect  its  seeds. 

Plants  with  small,  narrow,  upright  leaves  are  not  so 
easily  destroyed  as  those  with  broad,  spreading  leaves, 
for  the  solution  runs  off  the  former  more  readily  than 


46  COMMON    WEEDS 

the  latter.  In  some  cases  the  leaf  surfaces  of  plants 
are  covered  with  a  greyish  waxy  excretion  or  "  bloom," 
which  prevents  the  solution  from  adhering  to  or  wetting 
the  plants ;  the  solution  collects  in  drops,  which  roll 
off  easily,  or  are  shaken  off  by  the  wind. 

Copper  sulphate  is  more  poisonous  to  plants,  and 
can  therefore  be  used  in  weaker  solutions,  than  iron 
sulphate.  A  2  or  3  per  cent  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  is  about  as  effective  as  a  15  per  cent  solution 
of  the  iron  salt.  Which  of  them  is  the  more  economical 
depends  of  course  upon  the  relative  price  at  which  the 
two  substances  can  be  purchased.  The  iron  salt  is 
always  much  cheaper  pound  for  pound  than  the  copper 
compound  ;  but  the  market  price  fluctuates  consider- 
ably, and  which  to  use  must  be  determined  after 
obtaining  quotations  for  both. 

The  amounts  generally  used  are  40  to  50  gallons 
per  acre  of  a  2,  3,  or  4  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
(say  on  an  average  1 2  Ib.  in  40  gallons  of  water  per 
acre),  or  40  to  50  gallons  of  a  15  per  cent  solution 
of  iron  sulphate  (say  60  Ib.  in  40  gallons  of  water  per 
acre).  Stronger  solutions  than  these  are  liable  to  do 
permanent  damage  to  crops  among  which  the  weeds 
are  growing. 

Hundreds  of  trials  have  been  made  in  various  parts 
of  the  world, to  determine  the  influence  of  these  solu- 
tions upon  many  kinds  of  weeds.  They  have  been 
found  to  be  most  active  upon  Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis) 
and  Wild  Radish  (Raphanus  Raphanistrum),  and  it  may 
be  said  that  it  is  for  these  two  weeds  alone  that  spray- 
ing is  generally  practised. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  true  that  many  other  weeds 
are  much  damaged  by  the  solutions  of  copper  and  iron 
sulphates.  It  was  found,  for  example,  in  1899,  at  the 
Holmes  Chapel  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  College, 


REMEDIAL    MEASURES  47 

that  Persicaria  or  Redshank  (Polygomtm  Persicarid)  was 
completely  killed  by  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  copper 
sulphate,  100  gallons  per  acre  sprayed  on  clover  and 
grass  seeds  sown  in  May,  the  clover  and  grass  being 
uninjured. 

The  solutions  are  partially  effective  on  Docks,  Black 
Bindweed  (Polygonum  Convolvulus),  Dandelion,  Perennial 
Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  arvensis),  Poppy  (see  p.  55), 
Spurrey  (see  p.  74),  Groundsel,  and  Corn  Cockle,  and 
while  these  are  not  completely  destroyed,  seeding  is 
generally  prevented.  Spraying  with  solutions  of  the 
strengths  mentioned  above  has  also  no  permanent  effect 
on  Cornflower  (Centaurea  Cyanus),  Bindweeds  (Convol- 
vulus sp.),  Creeping  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis),  species 
of  Anthemis  and  Matricaria,  Couch  and  Horse-tails. 
Although  the  leaves  of  these  weeds  are  turned  brown 
and  killed  in  patches  the  plants  are  able  to  continue 
growth,  and  ultimately  produce  flowers  and  ripe  seeds. 

Species  of  Chenopodium,  Spurges  (Euphorbia  sp.), 
Fumitory,  and  Sisymbrium  Thaliana  are  protected  by 
the  glaucous  bloom  on  the  leaves,  and  spraying,  even 
with  very  much  stronger  solutions  than  those  men- 
tioned, has  little  or  no  effect  upon  them.  Knot-grass 
(Polygonum  Aviculare]  and  Small  Toadflax  (Linaria  minor) 
also  resist  these  solutions. 

As  spraying  is  chiefly  used  against  weeds  growing 
among  ordinary  farm  crops,  it  is  important  to  deter- 
mine to  what  extent  the  latter  are  injured  by  copper 
and  iron  sulphate  solutions.  In  the  strengths  given 
above  it  has  been  found  that  cereals  are  not  perman- 
ently injured  by  them.  The  tips  of  the  leaves  are 
generally  killed  and  sometimes  portions  of  the  flat 
leaves  also,  but  the  growing  points  are  effectively  pro- 
tected and  continue  to  grow,  new  leaves  are  unfolded, 
and  the  crop  does  not  suffer. 


48  COMMON    WEEDS 

The  first  leaves  of  red  clover,  which  is  generally 
sown  among  the  spring  cereals  barley  and  oats,  turn 
black  and  die  after  being  sprayed,  but  the  growing 
central  buds  of  the  plants  are  uninjured  and  develop 
satisfactorily  later. 

Peas,  vetches,  and  potatoes  are,  however,  seriously 
and  permanently  damaged,  so  that  weeds  among  these 
crops  must  be  dealt  with  in  other  ways. 

The  best  time  for  spraying  is  in  the  morning  of  a 
clear  day  when  there  is  no  wind  and  no  likelihood  of 
rain.  A  heavy  shower  or  two  immediately  after  spray- 
ing or  long-continued  rain  within  twenty-four  hours 
after  the  solutions  have  been  applied,  reduces  the  value 
of  the  operation  or  stops  its  action  altogether. 

The  plants  should  be  young  and  in  a  vigorous  state 
of  growth  ;  seedlings  possessing  three  or  four  well- 
developed  leaves  are  most  easily  destroyed.  Especially 
is  it  essential  to  deal  with  the  young  plants  of  Wild 
Radish  (Raphanus),  as  in  the  older  stages  they  are  more 
resistant  to  the  poisonous  materials  than  Charlock.  The 
latter  may  be  sprayed  with  success  even  when  the  plants 
are  in  flower  ;  if  not  too  far  developed  the  leaves  are 
destroyed,  and  although  pods  may  form,  they  usually 
contain  only  shrivelled  seeds  incapable  of  germination. 

The  effects  of  copper  and  iron  sulphates  and  other 
plant  poisons  when  used  in  weak  solutions  are  not  seen 
until  three  to  six  days  or  more  have  elapsed,  so  that  the 
value  of  spraying  for  weed  destruction  cannot  be  deter- 
mined immediately  after  the  operation  is  carried  out. 


In  May  get  a  weedhook,  a  crotch  and  a  gloue, 

and  weed  out  such  weeds,  as  the  come  doth  not  loue : 
For  weeding  of  winter  corne,  now  it  is  best, 
but  June  is  the  better,  for  weeding  the  rest." 

— THOMAS  TUSSER,  Five  Hundreth  Pointes  of 
Husbandrie,  1 5  5  7  • 


CHAPTER   IV 

WEEDS    OF   ARABLE    LAND 

"  In  the  later  ende  of  May  is  tyme  to  wede  thy  corne." 

— JOHN  FITZHERBKRT,  Boke  of  Husbandry,  1523. 

A  VERY  large  number  of  wild  plants  occur  as  weeds  in 
arable  land,  and  it  is  in  such  positions  that  weeds  are 
generally  held  to  be  most  troublesome.  As  has  already 
been  stated  (p.  27),  the  author  found  no  less  than  1050 
individual  young  plants  on  a  square  yard  of  good 
garden  soil  after  leaving  it  unhoed  for  a  short  time. 
Yet,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  very  many 
weeds  are  extremely  harmful  in  grass  land,  wrhere  they 
may  occur  in  plenty  and  sometimes  occupy  the  land 
almost  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  good  grasses  and 
clovers. 

The  small  extent  to  which  a  cultivated  crop  can 
compete  with  weeds  has  been  shown  at  Rothamsted,1 
where  a  plot  of  wheat  which  was  allowed  to  shed  its 
grain  and  reproduce  itself  in  subsequent  years  without 
any  kind  of  cultivation  or  help  against  weeds  was 
found  in  the  second  year  to  produce  only  about  half 
a  crop,  less  the  next  year,  and  only  two  or  three 
stunted  wheat  plants  in  the  fourth  season,  after  which 
the  wheat  disappeared  entirely — a  literal  case  of  a  crop 
being  "  smothered  by  weeds."  Instances  are  known  to 
every  farmer  in  which  a  vigorous  fight  against  weeds 
has  had  to  be  waged  in  order  to  raise  a  successful  crop 
of  corn  or  roots  (see  examples,  p.  15).  We  may  now 

1  A.  D.  Hall,  The  Book  of  Rothamsted  Experiments. 

49  D 


50  COMMON    WEEDS 

deal    with   the  various   weeds   of  arable   land,  and   the 
best  means  of  eradicating  them. 


RANUNCULACE.E 

Mousetail  (Myosurus  minimus  L.)  is  a  small  annual  of 
cornfields,  especially  on  damp  land.'  It  is  3  to  6  inches 
high,  with  erect,  fleshy,  linear  leaves,  and  flowering 
stems,  at  the  end  of  which  are  single,  minute  yellow- 
green  flowers.  Flowering  takes  place  between  April 
and  June.  In  the  fruiting  stage  the  receptacle  of  the 
flower  elongates  enormously,  when  the  stem  and  its 
achenes  superficially  resemble  a  miniature  Plantain.  It 
is  not  usually  so  plentiful  as  to  be  a  serious  pest, 
and,  being  an  annual,  thorough  cultivation  will  keep 
it  under. 

Creeping  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  repens  L.)  must  be 
classed  as  one  of  the  worst  weeds  of  arable  land.  This 
Buttercup  (Fig.  8)  is  a  hairy  perennial,  with  leaves 
divided  into  three  segments,  the  segments  also  being 
lobed  and  toothed ;  stems  i  to  2  feet  high,  bearing  yellow 
flowers  of  nearly  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  extensive 
runners  which  root  at  the  nodes,  and  quickly  cover  the 
ground  with  a  network  of  the  weed.  The  flowers 
appear  between  May  and  August.  If  not  attacked 
in  good  time  seeds  are  plentifully  produced  and  grow 
freely,  soon  completely  overrunning  the  land.  As 
stated  at  p.  27,  the  author  found  in  cultivated  garden 
soil  over  650  seedlings  of  this  weed  in  a  square  yard. 
It  is  sometimes  introduced  to  farms  in  samples  of 
clovers  and  ryegrass. 

This  pest  must  be  attacked  by  means  of  vigorous 
and  frequent  cultivation,  and  the  loosened  plants  must 
be  collected  and  burnt.  Fallow  crops  will  be  most 
useful,  and  if  the  weed  be  very  plentiful,  two  root 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  51 

crops  may  be  taken  in  succession  with  the  object  of 
reducing   it.     The   weed   occurs  most  freely  in    damp 


FlG.  8. — Creeping  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  repens  L.),   x  \. 

land,  and  draining  is  found  to  reduce  it.  In  garden 
cultivation  deep  trenching  will  destroy  the  growing 
plants,  but  unless  this  work  be  done  thoroughly  it  will 


52  COMMON    WEEDS 

be  better  to  fork  out  the  weeds  and  burn  them.  Fre- 
quent hoeing  in  spring  and  summer  will  destroy 
thousands  of  the  young  plants  (Fig.  9). 

Corn  or  Field  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  arvensis  L.)  is 
an  annual  which  is  frequently  extremely  troublesome 
in  cornfields  on  all  soils.  It  appears,  however,  to  favour 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  9. — Seedlings  of  Creeping  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  repens  L.). 

the  chalk  formation,  and  is  plentiful  on  the  strong  and 
clayey  wolds  of  North  Lincolnshire,  few  being  found 
on  the  light  soils  ;  and  it  is  found  in  summer  fallow 
wheat  and  winter  sown  barley  more  than  in  spring 
corn. 

The  Corn  Buttercup  or  Crowfoot  has  very  variable 
segmented  and  toothed  leaves,  and  solitary  stems  i  to  2 
feet  high.  The  flowers,  opening  between  May  and 
July,  are  pale  yellow,  and  about  J  inch  across.  In  other 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  53 

Buttercups  the  fruits  are  small,  hard  and  dry  (achenes), 
but  in  this  species  they  are  large,  few  in  number,  and 
covered  with  hooked  spines.  When  ripe  the  fruits  are 
flat  and  spiny,  and  in  some  districts  they  are  known  by 
the  name  of  "  Watch  Wheels." 

As  this  weed  is  an  annual  and  grows  rapidly  in  the 
spring  months,  it  is  obvious  that  spring  cultivation  and 
hoeing  will  destroy  the  seedlings.  Later,  should  any 
flowering  plants  be  observed  they  must  be  hoed  out  to 
prevent  seeding.  Cereals  and  unmilled  sainfoin  should 
be  examined  for  the  fruits  before  sowing. 

PAPAVERACE.E 

Four  species  of  the  genus  Papaver  are  met  with  in 
Great  Britain — P.  Rhceas  L.,  P.  dubium  L.,  P.  Argemone 
L.,  and  P.  hybridum  L.,  while  a  fifth,  P.  somniferum  L., 
the  Opium  Poppy,  occurs  occasionally  as  an  escape 
from  cultivation.  The  two  first  are  the  most  important 
agriculturally,  occurring  commonly  in  cornfields  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  What  is  a  more  magnificent 
sight  than  the  waving  scarlet  cloth  flung  wide  over  the 
fields  between  June  and  August  in  the  district  around 
Cromer  aptly  named  "  Poppyland,"  in  parts  of  Lin- 
colnshire, Sussex,  Hants,  and  elsewhere  ?  The  mixed 
Poppies  and  grain  crop  form  indeed  a  striking  and 
picturesque  spot  of  colour  in  the  landscape,  especially 
when  seen  in  undulating  country  and  backed  by  woods. 
Yet  all  who  are  acquainted  with  the  harm  which  an 
excess  of  weeds  may  cause  will  appreciate  the  picture 
also  from  another  point  of  view,  for  the  corn  crop  is 
sometimes  ruined  by  the  presence  of  the  crowding 
scarlet-capped  plants. 

The  Common  Red  Poppy  (P.  Rhceas)  and  the  Long 
Smooth-headed  Poppy  (P.  dubium]  are  erect  annual 


54  COMMON    WEEDS 

weeds  of.  two  or  more  feet  in  height,  with  deep  tap- 
roots, and  branched  hairy  stems  and  flower  stalks  ;  the 
hairs  in  the  former  spread  outwards  from  the  flower 
stalk,  but  in  the  latter  are  pressed  close  to  it.  The 
stems  exude  a  milky  juice  when  bruised  or  cut  ;  the 
leaves  are  pinnatifid  or  "  feathered,"  bearing  segments 
arranged  on  each  side  of  a  common  midrib  ;  and  the 
scarlet  flowers  are  about  3  inches  across.  In  the  case 
of  P.  Rhoeas  the  seed  capsule  is  not  much  longer  than 
broad,  but  in  P.  dubium  it  is  more  than  twice  as  long 
as  it  is  broad.  Both  seed  capsules  are  smooth,  and 
contain  seeds  in  large  numbers,  frequently  as  many  as 
10,000  to  50,000  on  one  plant.  The  seeds  are  very 
small,  and  on  escaping  from  the  capsule  are  carried 
about  by  the  wind  ;  in  addition,  they  are  of  an  oily 
character,  and  when  buried  .in  the  soil  may  retain  their 
vitality  for  some  years,  germinating  and  producing  new 
plants  when  brought  to  the  surface  under  favourable 
conditions.  This  fact  was  recognised  over  a  century 
ago :  "  The  seeds  remain  underground,  retaining  their 
vegetative  powers  for  a  long  time,  and  furnishing  a 
fresh  crop  of  Poppies  whenever  the  earth  is  turned 
over."1  It  is  therefore  clear  that  if  the  Poppy  is  per- 
mitted to  shed  its  seeds,  these  are  so  easily  spread 
that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  one  farm  in  a  district  clean 
if  other  farms  are  neglected. 

These  Poppies  have  received  a  large  number  of 
common  names,  of  which  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned : 2  —  Corn  Poppy,  Cornflower,  Corn  Rose, 
Canker  Rose,  Cock  Rose,  Cop  Rose,  Copper  Rose, 
Blind-eyes,  Headache,  Red-weed. 

P.  Rhceas  occurs  throughout  the  southern  and  mid- 
land counties  of  England,  and  in  Ireland  and  the 

1  Smith  and  Sowerby,  English  Botany,  1799,  vol.  viii.  p.  645. 

2  A.  B.  Smith,  Poisonous  Plants  of  all  Countries.  1905. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  55 

Channel  Islands,  but,  according  to  Hooker,  is  rare 
north  of  the  Tay.  P.  dubium,  however,  is,  according 
to  the  same  authority,  found  in  Britain  north  to  the 
Shetland  Islands.  Both  species  are  most  commonly 
found  on  light,  dry,  sandy,  and  gravelly  soils,  but 
flourish  even  on  heavy  wheat  land,  though  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  on  the  lighter  soils,  such  as  barley 
land.  It  is  during  damp,  warm  weather  in  spring, 
on  a  soil  in  good  tilth,  that  the  Poppy  seed  germi- 
nates most  freely,  the  established  plants  growing  most 
strongly  and  rapidly  in  hot  summer  weather,  when 
they  may  quickly  mature  and  scatter  their  seed  broad- 
cast. 

Poppies  maybe  combated  in  several  ways:  (i)  By 
employing  pure  seeds  for  sowing.  (2)  When  the  seeds 
are  present  in  the  soil  deep  ploughing  should  not  be 
practised,  as  the  seeds  will  only  be  brought  to  the  sur- 
face later.  Surface  cultivation  should  be  the  rule,  and 
after  producing  a  fine  tilth  in  the  spring,  and  en- 
couraging the  seeds  to  germinate,  thousands  of  the 
young  plants  may  be  destroyed  later  by  the  use  of  the 
hoe,  light  harrows,  the  Poppy  Killer  (Fig.  3),  and 
various  types  of  American  Weeder.  Such  a  method 
should  be  repeated  until  the  corn  crop  is  too  high  to 
permit  of  it,  when  hand  weeding  may  be  necessary. 
(3)  Where  Poppies  are  very  plentiful  it  is  useful  to  take 
an  extra  root  crop  in  the  rotation.  (4)  Spraying  with 
the  sulphates  of  copper  and  iron  has  been  found  to 
injure  the  Poppy.  At  the  Woburn  Experimental  Farm 
in  1900  and  1901,  P.  Rhaas  was  sprayed  with  a  2  per 
cent  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  and  when  the  solu- 
tion was  applied  to  the  underside  of  the  leaves  as  well 
as  to  the  upper  surface,  "  the  leaves  turned  brown, 
became  shrivelled,  and  to  a  great  extent  the  plant  was 
killed,  for  the  seeding  was  almost  entirely  prevented, 


56  COMMON    WEEDS 


Photo,  1909.  7.  C.   Varty-Smith. 

FIG.  10. — Fumitory  (Fumaria  officinalis  L.). 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  57 

the  flower  heads  withering  up."  l  The  height  of  the 
corn  crop,  however,  would  forbid  spraying  by  means 
of  horsed  vehicles  when  the  Poppies  were  nearly  at  the 
flowering  stage,  but  a  3  per  cent  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  (which  in  the  case  of  Charlock  spraying  has 
been  found  to  do  little,  if  any,  injury  to  the  cereal 
crop)  might  be  tried  when  the  Poppies  are  no  more 
than  half  grown.  If  necessary,  two  applications  with 
an  interval  of  a  few  days  could  be  tried.  It  has  been 
stated  2  that  the  common  Scarlet  Poppy  is  very  sensitive 
to  a  13  to  20  per  cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and 
since  a  cereal  crop  can  withstand  a  15  per  cent  solu- 
tion (vide  Charlock  spraying),  a  solution  of  such  a 
strength  should  be  tried.  With  a  solution  of  either  of 
the  sulphates  40  gallons  will  suffice  for  an  acre. 

(As  to  the  poisonous  properties  of  Poppies,  see  p. 
281.) 

FUMARIACE^: 

Common  Fumitory  (Fumaria  officinalis  L.)  is  a  common 
annual  of  a  rather  prostrate  habit  of  growth,  often 
plentiful  in  cornfields  on  light,  sandy,  and  loamy  soils. 
This  plant  (Fig.  10)  is  i  to  ij  feet  high,  with  much 
divided  leaves,  and  long  racemes  of  many  irregular  dark 
or  pale  rose-purple  flowers,  which  appear  between  May 
and  September.  It  is  occasionally  very  troublesome, 
but,  being  an  annual,  can  be  got  rid  of  by  persistent 
hoeing  and  surface  cultivation  in  spring  and  early 
summer. 

CRUCIFER^E 

Many  plants  of  this  order  are  troublesome  weeds, 
almost  all  being  pests  of  arable  land  ;  a  number  must 

1  Jour.  R.A.S.E.,  1902,  p.  360. 

2  F.  Maier-Bode,  Die  Bekanipfiing  der  Acker- Unkrauter   1908. 


58  COMMON    WEEDS 

be  considered  here.  Crucifers  should  be  cut  down 
and  eradicated,  both  because  they  are  harmful  to  crops, 
and  because  they  harbour  insects  and  fungi  injurious  to 
farm  and  garden  crops. 

Hedge  Mustard  (Sisymbrium  officinaleL.)  is  a  common 
weed  of  hedgerows,  waste  places,  and  roadsides,  in 
which  latter  position  "  it  seems  to  have  a  peculiar  apti- 
tude for  collecting  and  retaining  dust "  (Johns).  It 
is  an  annual  i  to  2  feet  high,  with  deeply  lobed,  hairy 
leaves,  and  small  yellow  flowers  ;  the  downy  pods  when 
ripe  are  closely  pressed  to  the  leafless  stem.  It  can 
be  kept  in  check  by  hoeing  and  cutting  down  to  pre- 
vent seeding. 

Garlic  Mustard  (Sisymbrium  Alliaria  L.),  also  known 
as  Sauce-alone,  Jack-by-the-Hedge,  is  a  leafy  annual 
of  2  to  3  feet  high,  with  rather  large  stalked  leaves, 
more  or  less  heart-  or  kidney-shaped,  and  coarsely 
toothed.  The  flowers  are  white,  J  inch  across,  and 
appear  from  April  to  June,  while  the  stiff,  rather  curved 
pods  are  over  2  inches  long.  This  weed  is  very 
common  along  hedge  banks  and  similar  positions, 
especially  on  the  heavier  soils.  It  should  be  regularly 
cut  down. 

Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis  L.),  so  well  known  as 
Kedlock,  Skellock,  Yellow  Weed,  and  Wild  Mustard,  is 
a  ubiquitous  weed  of  arable  land,  especially  cornfields, 
and  is  probably  more  troublesome  on  almost  all  soils 
(especially  light  calcareous  loams)  than  any  other 
annual.  It  is  a  tall,  rough,  branched  weed,  with  large 
ovate  or  lyrate  toothed  leaves,  yellow  flowers  of  \  inch 
or  over  in  diameter,  and  spreading,  angled,  rough 
pods  i  to  2  inches  long  (Fig.  n).  When  pulled  by 
hand  Charlock  quickly  discolours  the  skin  a  dirty 
green. 

Not    only  is   this    pest  a   strong,  rapid   grower,  but 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  59 

it  produces  an  abundance  of  seed,  which  ripens  quickly, 
and  has  a  wonderful  vitality  which  enables  it  to  lie  for 
many  years  in  the  soil  uninjured,  and  later  such  buried 
seed  may  germinate  when  brought  to  the.  surface. 
Further,  the  seeds  ripen  before  cereal  crops  are  cut, 
and  this  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  perpetuation  of 
the  weed,  which 
is  only  overcome 
with  the  greatest 
difficulty.  If  land 
be  laid  down  to 
pasture,  Charlock 
will  disappear, 
being  exclusively 
a  weed  of  culti- 
vated land  ;  but 
should  an  old  pas- 
ture be  ploughed, 
Charlock  is  al- 
most certain  to 
spring  up.  Ex- 
periments con- 
ducted by  Pro- 
fessor Peter  at 
Got  tin  gen  have 
shown l  that  the 
seeds  of  Charlock 

.     .          ,.  FIG.  ii. — Charlock  (Sinapis  arvcnsis  L.),   x  \. 

can    retain    their 

vitality  or  germinative  capacity  for  forty  years,  espe- 
cially when  they  lie  at  considerable  depths  in  the 
soil. 

Losses  due  to  profuse  growth  of  Charlock  and  allied 
species  (described  below)  have  been  found  in  Germany 
to  be  very  great.  The  following  examples  may  be 

1  Deutsche  Landw.  Presse,  July  24,  1909. 


6o 


COMMON    WEEDS 


given,  taking   2.5   acres  to  the  hectare,  2.2   Ib.  to  the 
kilogram,  and  oats  at  42  Ib.  per  bushel : * — 


With  Charlock, 
Bushels  per 
Acre. 

Without  Char- 
lock, Bushels 
per  Acre. 

Approximate 
Loss  due  to 
Charlock, 
per  Cent. 

i.  Oats. 

45 

67 

33 

2.  Oats 

24.8 

76.5 

67.5 

There  are  three  chief  methods  of  combating  Char- 
lock :  (i)  By  preventing  the  introduction  of  the  seeds 
in  seeds  for  sowing,  (2)  by  destroying  the  seedlings 
and  older  plants  by  mechanical  means,  and  (3)  by 
spraying. 

The  first  plan  is  obvious,  and  may  be  said  to  be 
applicable  to  all  weeds,  and  has  been  dealt  with  else- 
where. 

As  regards  the  second  method,  this  may  be  carried 
out  in  several  ways :  by  hand  hoeing  corn  crops  ; 
by  bringing  about  a  fine  tilth  in  warm  spring  weather 
to  encourage  the  Charlock  seeds  to  germinate,  and  then 
passing  light  harrows  or  the  American  Weeder  over  the 
young  plants  ;  by  hand  and  horse  hoeing  root  and 
pulse  crops  ;  by  chopping  off  the  flowering  heads  by 
means  of  reaping-hooks,  scythes,  hooks  with  jagged 
teeth,  and  various  specially  constructed  machines  ;  and 
by  hand  pulling.  The  growth  of  early  potatoes,  with 
the  constant  tillage  they  receive,  is  a  valuable  means  of 
destroying  Charlock.  Root  crops  generally  are  more 
useful  than  any  other  where  Charlock  abounds,  as  the 
frequent  hoeing  both  aids  the  roots  to  grow  more 


1  Arb.  dei-  Dent.  Land.  Gesell. :  Ackersenf  und  Hederich,  Gustav  Schultz, 
1909. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  61 

strongly,  and  destroys  immense  numbers  of  seedlings. 
Sometimes  also  the  seeds  of  Charlock  may  be  en- 
couraged to  germinate  in  a  mild  autumn,  when  the 
young  plants  are  destroyed  by  the  first  sharp  frost. 
An  important  plan,  which  should  be  more  often 
practised,  is  to  use  a  trough  on  the  harvester  or 
binder  when  cereal  crops  are  cut,  in  order  to  catch 
the  Charlock  and  other  seeds  which  are  shed,  and 
prevent  them  from  reaching  the  ground  (see  p.  30). 

The  third  method,  spraying,  is  of  great  importance, 
and  may  be  carried  out  when  the  cereal  crop  and 
the  Charlock  are  both  young.  The  narrow,  smooth, 
erect  leaves  of  the  cereal  do  not  retain  much  of  the 
solution  used,  and  consequently  escape  any  permanent 
injury,  while  the  somewhat  broad,  rough,  horizontal 
leaves  of  Charlock  catch  and  retain  the  solution,  and 
are  thus  permanently  damaged.  In  May  and  June, 
when  the  Charlock  plants  are  in  the  "  rough  leaf,"  and 
not  over  3  inches  high,  and  while  the  cereal  is  still 
comparatively  short,  the  whole  may  be  sprayed  with  a 
2,  3,  or  4  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulphate  (8,  12,  or 
1 6  Ib.  in  40  gallons  of  water),  applying  40  gallons  per 
acre  by  means  of  a  machine  which  generates  a  fine 
spray  under  air  pressure.  Soft  water  should  be  used 
when  possible,  the  copper  sulphate  should  be  of  98  per 
cent  purity,  and  wooden  buckets  or  tubs  should  be 
employed  for  mixing. 

Sulphate  of  iron  at  the  rate  of  40  gallons  per  acre  of 
a  15  per  cent  solution  (60  Ib.  in  40  gallons  of  water) 
may  be  employed  in  place  of  copper  sulphate. 

Such  spraying,  if  well  done,  results  in  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  young  Charlock  then  growing  being 
killed  (see  also  p.  45).  The  seeds  of  Charlock 
contain  a  considerable  amount  of  oil,  and  it  is  stated 
by  Percival  that  they  are  sold  by  many  farmers  to  oil- 


62  COMMON    WEEDS 

cake  manufacturers,  finally  appearing  as  impurities  in 
rape  and  other  "  cakes." 

Wild  Radish,  Runch  (Raphanus  Raphanistrum  L.),  also 
known  as  White  Charlock,  or  Jointed  Charlock,  re- 
sembles 5.  arvensis  in  habit.  It  is  a  stout  erect  or 
spreading  annual,  somewhat  hairy,  with  large  lyrate, 
coarsely  toothed  leaves,  white-  or  straw-coloured  flowers 
f  inch  in  diameter,  and  pods  i  to  3  inches  long.  This 
weed  flowers  between  May  and  September.  It  should 
be  dealt  with  as  described  above  in  the  case  of  Char- 
lock, but  it  is  essential  to  spray  the  young  plants. 

"During  September  (1907)  the  Board  received  from 
Wolverhampton  specimens  of  two  cruciferous  weeds 
resembling  White  Charlock  (Raphanus  Raphanistrum  L.). 
They  were  identified  as  Raphanus  microcarpus  Willk.  and 
R.  sativus  L.,  var.  oleifer  DC.  The  former  is  not  very 
common  in  this  country,  while  the  latter  is  a  rare 
casual.  As  they  were  growing  freely  amongst  corn,  the 
weeds  were  sprayed  early  with  strong,  pure,  copper 
sulphate  solution,  which,  however,  had  no  effect  on 
them  whatever.  They  are  not  likely  to  prove  very 
troublesome,  but  where  they  come  up  thickly  the  hoe 
should  be  freely  used  in  a  root  crop,  while  in  corn 
crops  they  should  be  hoed,  or  "  topped,"  with  a  scythe 
when  the  plants  are  flowering.  Some  plants  are  very 
bulky,  consisting  of  as  many  as  twenty  stems,  while 
they  are  from  2  feet  to  3  feet  high.  The  introduction 
of  a  potato  crop  into  the  rotation  two  or  three  years 
after  a  root  crop  often  clears  land  of  Charlock,  and  this 
plan  might  be  tried  with  the  species  under  considera- 
tion. Seeding  should  be  prevented,  even  if  hand  pulling 
must  be  resorted  to,  while  any  grain  sown  should  be 
entirely  free  from  the  seeds." 1 

Wild  forms  of  Brassica  allied  to  the  turnip,  rape  or 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agi'ic.)  February,  1908. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  63 

swede,  occur  as  weeds  of  cultivated  fields  on  practically 
all  soils,  flowering  from  June  to  September.  They 
should  be  attacked  in  the  same  way  as  Charlock. 

Gold  of  Pleasure  (Camelina  sativa  L.)  is  a  slender 
annual  of  2  to  3  feet  in  height,  branched  above,  with 
small  yellow  flowers  of  \  inch  in  diameter,  and  some- 
what egg-shaped  inflated  pods.  Flowers  appear  in  June 
and  July.  This  plant  is  an  escape  from  cultivation, 
and  occurs  sporadically  among  flax  and  in  cornfields. 
It  is  not  troublesome  in  general  agriculture.  Hooker 
states  that  the  seeds  are  used  for  soap-maker's  oils,  oil- 
cake, and  for  feeding  poultry.  Where  plentiful,  it  should 
be  attacked  vigorously  with  the  hoe  or  by  hand  pulling. 

Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bur sa- Pastor  is  DC.)  is 
found  in  almost  all  situations  and  at  almost  any  time 
of  the  year,  flowering  practically  from  early  March  to 
early  December.  It  is  a  branched,  upright  annual  (Fig. 
12),  which  attains  nearly  18  inches  in  height  ;  the  small 
white  flowers  are  placed  on  slender  stalks,  and  are  about 
j3^  inch  in  diameter  ;  the  roots  are  long  and  tapering. 
At  the  base  of  the  stem  a  rosette  of  leaves  is  spread  flat 
upon  the  soil,  the  plant  therefore  demanding  consider- 
able space.  Seeds  are  produced  in  large  numbers,  the 
seed  "  pods  "  being  somewhat  peculiar  in  shape,  almost 
triangular,  and  much  compressed  laterally,  resembling 
a  shepherd's  "  sporran."  The  flowers  and  pods  easily 
distinguish  it  from  other  weeds  of  the  order. 

Shepherd's  Purse  is  occasionally  a  troublesome  pest, 
especially  on  light  land,  occurring  abundantly  both  in 
field  and  garden.  It  grows  rapidly  and  seeds  freely  in 
hidden  positions  behind  larger  cultivated  plants  ;  the 
soil  is  often  rapidly  covered  by  young  plants,  which 
frequently  follow  one  another  as  fast  as  they  are  hoed 
out.  In  addition,  the  weed,  like  other  crucifers,  serves 
as  a  host  for  insect  pests,  and  is  specially  liable  to  be 


64  COMMON    WEEDS 

infested  by  the  white  rust   Cystopus  candidus,  which  may 


FIG.  12. — Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris  DC.),  x^. 

become  distributed  to  cultivated  crucifers,  such  as  wall- 
flowers, cabbage,  and  related  plants. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


As  Shepherd's  Purse 
is  a  quick-growing 
annual,  which  seeds 
freely  in  many  months 
of  the  year,  the  obvious 
remedy  is  the  prevention 
of  seeding.  To  this  end 
the  hoe  should  be  kept 
vigorously  at  work  when- 
ever the  pest  appears. 
In  field  cultivation  also 
the  seeds  may  be  en- 
couraged to  germinate, 
and  then  be  destroyed 
by  the  use  of  the  harrow, 
or  in  root  crops  with  the 
hand  or  horse  hoe. 

Field  Pepperwort 
(Lepidium  campestre  Br.) 
is  an  annual  or  biennial 
weed,  6  to  1 8  inches 
high  (Fig.  13)  ;  it  is 
slightly  branched  ;  the 
leaves  on  the  stems  are 
almost  lanceolate,  and 
arrow-head  shaped  at 
the  base  ;  the  white 
flowers  are  very  small, 
and  the  ovate  rough  flat- 
tened pods  about  J  inch 
in  diameter.  Flowering 
takes  place  between  May 
and  August ;  last  season 
(1909)  in  Lincolnshire 
it  was  practically  over 


FIG.  13. — Field  Pepperwort  (Lepidium 
campestre  Br.),  nat.  size,  with  flower 
enlarged. 


The   weed    is 
E 


by    mid-July. 


66  COMMON    WEEDS 

occasionally  very  troublesome  in  arable  land.  Only 
last  summer  (1909)  a  friend  wrote  to  the  author  from 
Lincolnshire  :  lt  I  never  saw  Pepperwort  here  until  a 
few  years  ago  ;  it  appeared  in  a  field  on  the  site  of 
an  old  stackyard,  now  all  arable.  I  hoe  it,  pull  it, 
and  this  year  I  have  mown  50  square  yards,  corn 
and  weeds  together.  It  seems  to  spread  awfully, 
and  is  appearing  at  other  points.  I  am  sowing  the 
field  down  to  four  years'  ley,  and  trust  it  will  not  come 
after."1  The  taking  of  a  root  crop,  or  if  necessary  two 
root  crops  in  succession,  should  reduce  it  considerably. 
As  the  plant  is  only  produced  from  seed,  seeding  must 
be  prevented  by  tillage  operations  or  by  hand  pulling. 

Another  Pepperwort  (Lepidium  Draba  L.)  is  occa- 
sionally troublesome  on  land  near  the  sea,  as  on  warp 
land,  chiefly  in  the  south  of  England.  Although  an 
"  alien  "  in  Britain,  it  is  a  common  weed  of  roadsides 
and  fields  on  the  Continent.  It  is  a  perennial,  branched, 
downy  plant,  i  to  3  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  oblong,  the 
lower  being  stalked,  while  the  upper  have  an  arrow- 
headed  base  which  clasps  the  stem.  The  flowers  are 
white,  |  inch  in  diameter,  in  short  corymbose  clusters. 
The  pods  are  nearly  heart-shaped,  and  constricted  in 
the  centre.  Flowering  occurs  from  May  to  June.  If 
allowed  to  seed,  this  weed  may  spread  rapidly  and 
become  a  pest.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  prevent 
seeding  entirely  for  a  year  or  two  by  thorough  tillage 
operations  and  the  use  of  hoed  crops. 

Penny  Cress  or  Mithridate  Mustard  ( Thlaspi  arvense 
L.)  is  an  erect  annual  with  simple  stem,  i  to  2  feet  high. 
The  leaves  on  the  stem  are  somewhat  oblong,  arrow- 
shaped,  and  toothed  ;  the  white  flowers  are  only  \  inch 
across,  while  the  round  flat  pods  are  two  or  three  times 
this  diameter,  broadly  winged,  with  a  deep  notch  at  the 

1  W.  C.  Brown.     See  p.  241. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  67 

top,  and  borne  on  slender  stalks.  The  seed-vessels  have 
been  compared  in  appearance  with  silver  pennies  ;  they 
are  easily  scattered  by  the  wind.  Each  pod  contains 
about  a  dozen  brownish  oval  seeds,  and  an  average 
plant  is  stated  to  produce  about  20,000  seeds.1  The 
flowers  appear  from  May  to  July  or  later.  The  plant 
has  an  unpleasant  smell  when  bruised. 

This  weed  should  be  persistently  hoed  out  to  prevent 
seeding,  and  the  growth  of  root  or  other  hoed  crops 
will  render  this  possible  and  easy.  Where  the  weed  is 
very  abundant  it  should  be  mown  and  burnt.  Penny 
Cress  is  a  noxious  weed  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
and  is  described  as  a  terrible  pest  of  the  farmer  in 
Manitoba  and  the  North-West.  It  is  there  known  as 
Stinkweed,  on  account  of  its  abominable  smell. 
"  S-t-i-n-k  is  a  small  word  with  a  big  meaning,  easily 
understood  by  any  one  who  has  ever  handled  Stink- 
weed,  or  tasted  milk  or  butter  from  a  cow  which  has 
eaten  it."  2 

In  order  to  eradicate  Penny  Cress,  great  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  plough  under  plants  with  ripe  seed- 
vessels.  Where  land  is  infested,  an  endeavour  should 
be  made  to  encourage  germination  by  means  of  surface 
cultivation,  proceeding  generally  to  harrow  the  young 
plants  as  described  in  the  case  of  Charlock  (p.  60). 
Taking  three  or  four  years'  ley  will  largely  choke  out 
the  weed,  and  any  plants  which  may  appear  the  first 
year  may  be  cut  and  destroyed.  Should  any  plants 
appear  in  the  next  cultivated  crop,  they  must  be 
attacked  with  the  hoe,  by  hand  pulling,  and  by  general 
cultivation. 

Bitter  Candytuft  (Iberis  amara  L.)  is  an  annual 
weed  of  cornfields,  especially  on  dry  chalky  soils  in  the 

1  Bull.  128,  Ontario  Agricultural  College. 

2  Farm  Weeds,  Dept.  of  Agric.,  Ottawa. 


68  COMMON    WEEDS 

south  and  east  of  England.  It  is  under  a  foot  high, 
with  sessile  oblong-lanceolate  leaves,  white,  reddish,  or 
purplish  flowers  J  inch  in  diameter,  and  very  small, 
broad,  flat  pods.  The  flowers  appear  about  July.  Where 
this  weed  occurs  plentifully,  it  should  be  met  by  sur- 
face cultivation  and  the  vigorous  use  of  the  hoe. 

Wart  Cress,  Swine's  Cress  (Senebiera  Coronopus 
Poiret.)  is  an  annual  or  biennial  weed  of  cultivated 
ground,  roadsides,  and  waste  land.  It  is  a  small, 
smooth,  leafy  plant,  with  many  slender  prostrate 
branches.  The  minute  white  flowers  are  in  very  short 
clusters  opposite  the  leaves,  and,  with  the  small  com- 
pressed pods,  give  the  plant  the  appearance  of  being 
"  warty."  Flowering  takes  place  between  June  and 
September.  This  weed  must  where  necessary  be 
hoed  out.  It  is  unlikely  to  be  very  troublesome,  but 
occurs  sometimes  in  cornfields. 


VIOLACE.E 

Heart's-ease,  Corn  Pansy  (Viola  tricolor  L.  and  sub. 
sp.)  is  chiefly  a  weed  of  arable  and  waste  land.  It  is 
a  very  variable  annual,  with  angular  branched  stem 
6  to  1 8  inches  high,  and  well-known,  pretty  flowers  J  to 
ij  inch  in  diameter.  It  has  a  long  flowering  period, 
from  May  to  September,  and  is  perhaps  most  common 
in  cornfields.  The  seeds  occur  in  samples  of  timothy, 
alsike,  and  other  farm  seeds.  Persistent  hoeing  of 
root  crops  after  corn,  with  surface  cultivation  if  the 
pest  is  plentiful,  will  reduce  it  ;  and,  as  it  seeds  freely, 
it  must  not  be  permitted  to  ripen  its  seed  capsules. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  69 

CARYOPHYLLACE^E 

Bladder  Campion  (Silene  inflata  Sm.)  is  one  of  the 
commonest  weeds  of  cornfields,  and  grows  on  many 
kinds  of  soil.  It  is  a  smooth,  shiny  perennial,  i  to  2  feet 
high,  with  ovate  or  oblong  pointed  leaves  and  drooping 
white  flowers  f  inch  in  diameter,  appearing  from  June 
to  August.  The  calyx  is  inflated  and  bladder-like,  with 
violet  veins,  and  is  often  picked  by  children  to  "  pop  " 
by  hitting  the  open  end  against  the  hand.  The  capsule 
is  globose. 

Red  Campion  (Lychnis  diurna  Sibth.)  is  a  softly  hairy, 
viscid  perennial,  i  to  3  feet  high,  with  slender,  branched 
rootstock.  The  leaves  are  ovate,  and  the  flowers, 
which  are  found  in  June  and  July,  have  reddish-pink 
divided  petals. 

White  Campion,  Evening  Campion  (Lychnis  vesper- 
tina  Sibth.)  much  resembles  L.  diurna,  but  the  flowers 
are  white,  and  fragrant  at  night.  Flowering  occurs 
between  June  and  September.  This  plant  is  perhaps 
most  common  on  light,  sandy  soils. 

These  three  species  are  all  common  enough  in  corn- 
fields, leys,  and  clover  crops.  Their  seeds  are  often 
found  as  impurities  in  timothy  and  clover  samples. 
Wherever  the  plants  are  met  with  an  endeavour  should 
be  made  to  prevent  seeding  by  hand  pulling  or  other 
means.  Only  pure  clover  samples  and  temporary 
"  seeds  "  should  be  sown. 

Corn  Cockle  (Agrostemma  Githago  L.),  a  common 
plant  of  cornfields,  is  dealt  with  at  p.  283. 

Mouse-ear  Chick  weed  (Cerastium  triviale  Link.) 
occurs  in  arable  land,  and,  like  the  following  species, 
is  sometimes  very  troublesome.  It  is  also  common 
in  grass  land  (see  p.  156).  A  closely-allied  perennial 
species,  C.  arvense  L.,  occurs  in  quantity  on  arable  land, 


70  COMMON    WEEDS 

especially  on  light,  sandy  soils.  It  has  a  hairy  stem, 
linear-lanceolate  leaves  somewhat  crowded  at  the  base 
of  the  shoots,  and  clusters  (cymes)  of  many  small,  white 
flowers. 

These  two  species  are  frequently  kept  down  by  the 
earlier  sown  cereals,  which  soon  over-top  the  low- 
growing  weeds.  They  are  harmful,  however,  owing  to 
their  habit  of  growing  closely  around  the  base  of  the 
stems  of  corn  and  root  crops.  Thorough  cultivation, 
and  deep  ploughing  with  the  use  of  the  skim  coulter, 
keeps  them  in  check. 

Chickweed  (Stellaria  media  L.)  is  an  annual  weed 
which  is  ubiquitous  on  arable  land  on  most  soils,  espe- 
cially in  gardens  and  on  rich,  well-tilled  land.  It  is  a 
low,  prostrate  weed,  much  branched,  and  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fact  that  "  a  linear  whisker  runs  up 
one  side  of  the  stem,  and  when  a  pair  of  leaves  is 
reached  the  whisker  is  continued  on  the  opposite  side  " 
(M'Alpine  and  Wright).  "  Water  poured  on  the  plant 
runs  down  these,  and  Stahl  explains  them  as  adapta- 
tions similar  to  drip-tips  (cf.  Ficus)  for  drying  the  plant 
after  rain  ;  Lindman  thinks  they  convey  the  water  to 
the  leaf-axils,  where  it  is  absorbed  by  the  plant." l 
The  leaves  are  ovate,  the  lower  ones  being  stalked  and 
the  upper  sessile.  Large  numbers  of  small  white 
flowers  in  lax  clusters  are  produced  from  early  spring 
to  late  autumn,  and  the  plant  exhausts  itself  in  seed 
production.  Chickweed  is  a  lowly  weed  which  hugs 
the  soil  closely,  wrapping  the  ground  in  a  mantle  of 
green.  It  is  perhaps  more  troublesome  in  gardens  than 
on  the  farm  ;  but  it  grows  and  matures  so  rapidly, 
and  sheds  such  an  abundant  supply  of  seeds,  that 
a  close  watch  must  be  kept  upon  it.  To  keep  it  down  a 
continual  use  of  the  hoe  in  hot  dry  weather  is  neces- 

1  Willis,  Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  71 

sary.  In  damp  weather,  especially  in  garden  cultivation, 
the  hoed-out  weeds  may  with  advantage  be  raked  off  and 
placed  on  the  compost  heap  or  smother  fire,  or  be 
deeply  buried  in  the  rubbish  trench  for  the  growth  of 
marrows.  On  the  farm,  surface  cultivation  to  encourage 
the  germination  of  the  seeds,  followed  by  harrowing  in 
hot  weather,  will  destroy  large  numbers  of  the  seedling 
plants.  Deep  ploughing,  with  the  use  of  the  skim  coul- 
ter, will  also  destroy  this  weed.  In  root  crops,  where 
the  weed  presses  closely  around  the  base  of  the  plants, 
especially  on  the  tops  of  potato-drills,  the  hand  and 
horse  hoe  must  be  freely  used. 

Sandwort  (Arenaria  tenuifolia  L.)  is  an  erect,  slender 
annual,  3  to  9  inches  high,  with  fine  narrow  leaves,  rather 
crowded  below  and  widely  separated  above.  The  white 
flowers,  J  inch  across,  in  many -flowered  cymose 
clusters,  appear  from  June  to  August.  It  is  not 
commonly  troublesome,  but  occurs  in  sandy  fields  in 
some  districts,  chiefly  in  the  Eastern  counties  (Hooker). 

Thyme-leaved  Sandwort  (Arenaria  serpyllifolia  L.)  is 
another  annual  somewhat  similar  to  A.  tenuifolia.  It  is, 
however,  downy,  more  or  less  decumbent,  repeatedly 
forked,  with  broader  leaves,  which  are  ovate  and 
pointed,  resembling  those  of  thyme,  and  much  smaller 
flowers  (J  inch  in  diameter),  which  open  between  June 
and  August.  This  weed  is  abundant  in  dry  places, 
even  on  walls,  and  in  dry  cornfields. 

Both  species  of  Sandwort  require  the  vigorous  use 
of  the  hoe,  and  encouragement  of  the  seeds  to  ger- 
minate for  subsequent  destruction  with  the  harrows 
during  spring.  Owing  to  their  small  size  they  are 
unlikely  to  do  much  harm  in  cornfields,  unless  present 
in  quantity. 

Spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis  L.)  is  one  of  the  most 
troublesome  weeds  of  arable  farms  on  light  sandy  soils, 


i     v 


Photo,  1909.  /.  C.  Varty- Smith. 

FIG.  14. — Spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis  L.). 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  73 

and,  if  not  checked,  quickly  ripens  large  quantities  of 
seeds,  which  are  readily  shed.  This  weed  (Fig.  14) 
is  a  more  or  less  downy  and  sticky,  branched  annual, 
6  to  1 8  inches  high,  with  thickened  nodes  or  joints. 
The  leaves  are  small  and  fine,  \  to  ij  inch  long,  awl- 
shaped,  with  a  groove  beneath,  and  arranged  in  whorls 
at  the  joints  of  the  stem.  The  flowers,  appearing 
between  June  and  August,  are  small  (J  inch  across), 
white,  on  slender  stalks  in  loose  terminal  clusters 
(panicled  or  sub-umbellate  cymes).  The  seed  capsules 
are  more  or  less  round. 

Spurrey  invades  both  corn  and  root  crops,  and  if 
plentiful  may  quite  smother  any  spring  or  summer 
sown  crops.  The  growth  of  young  turnips  may  be 
seriously  impeded  by  the  luxurious  growth  of  Spurrey, 
and  the  thinning  of  carrots  may  be  an  arduous  task 
completed  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  while  corn 
crops  may  be  quite  overrun  by  the  pest.  "  It  never 
does  any  injury  to  corn  after  lea,  but  corn  after  root- 
crop  is  sometimes  completely  destroyed  by  it,  and  the 
grazing  grasses  and  clovers  sown  with  the  corn  may  be 
entirely  smothered."  1 

Wherever  Spurrey  appears,  strenuous  efforts  must 
be  made  to  prevent  it  seeding.  If  root  crops  be  in- 
fested they  should  be  hoed  as  often  as  may  be  necessary 
to  keep  down  the  weed  and  prevent  the  ripening  of 
seed,  while  the  roots  should  be  hurried  on  by  means 
of  manures.  Should  a  corn  crop  be  early  observed 
to  contain  Spurrey,  the  weed  should  be  hoed  out  or 
hand  pulled  ;  but  if  the  land  be  known  to  contain  the 
seeds,  the  surface  cultivation  recommended  for  Poppies 
(P-  55)  should  be  practised.  In  the  case  of  fallow 
crops  also,  late  quick-growing  turnips  may  be  sown  ; 
this  will  afford  an  opportunity  for  one  or  more  surface 

1  M 'Alpine  and  Wright,  H.  and  Agric.  Soc.  Trans.,  1894. 


74  COMMON    WEEDS 

cultivations  at  intervals  of  a  fortnight  before  the  turnips 
are  sown.  Large  quantities  of  Spurrey  may  thus  be 
destroyed  in  this  manner,  and  the  practice  may  be 
followed  by  thorough  hand  and  horse  hoeings.  If 
necessary,  the  next  "  seeds "  may  be  sown  without  a 
corn  crop,  and  this  also  will  enable  the  plan  of  surface 
cultivation  in  spring  to  be  followed,  the  "  seeds  "  being 
sown  in  June. 

It  is  stated  that  lime  has  a  good  effect  in  ridding 
land  of  Spurrey,  and  Hall  even  says  that  the  presence 
of  Spurrey  on  arable  land  is  a  pretty  sure  sign  of  the 
absence  of  lime.  At  Woburn,  when  part  of  an  infested 
field  was  treated  with  lime,  the  Spurrey  disappeared. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  correspondent  of  the  Mark  Lane 
Express  states1  that  "in  November  1908  I  ploughed 
into  4  acres  about  13  tons  of  gas-lime,  and  this 
spring  my  oats  were  suffocated  with  Spurrey."  In 
an  experiment  at  Capel  Curig  also,  two  plots,  which 
respectively  received  10  cwt.  and  20  cwt.  of  ground 
lime  before  the  corn  was  sown,  showed  no  difference 
at -harvesting.  Where,  after  the  corn  and  Spurrey  had 
made  some  growth,  a  plot  was  sprayed  with  50  gallons 
per  acre  of  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulphate, 
the  Spurrey  was  completely  destroyed.  In  another 
trial  at  Bodorgan,  where  a  considerable  quantity  of 
Spurrey  appeared,  3,  4,  and  5  per  cent  solutions  of 
copper  sulphate  were  tried  ;  all  were  more  or  less 
effective,  only  half  the  Spurrey  forming  seed  on  the 
plot  treated  with  the  3  per  cent  solution,  and  not 
more  than  20  per  cent  on  the  other  two  plots.2 

A  form  of  Spurrey  is  widely  grown  as  a  fodder 
crop  in  Belgium  and  elsewhere  on  the  Continent,  and 

1  August  30,  1909. 

2  Agric.    Dept.,    Univ.  Coll.  N.  Wales,   Bangor,  Bull,   ix.,   1906;    Bull. 
vii.,   1907. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


75 


a  crop  badly  infested  with  the  weed  may  be  fed  off 
with  sheep  before  the  seeds  are  ripe.  The  weed  is 
also  occasionally  made  into  hay.  Wolff  quotes  the 
following  analyses  of  Spurrey  : l — 


GREEN. 

HAY. 

Total. 

Digestible. 

Total. 

Digestible. 

Water       .         .         .    /   . 

80.0 

16.7 

Crude  Albumen 

2-3 

12.0 

Crude  Fibre 

5-3 

3-3 

22.0 

*3-i 

Nitrogen-free  Extract 

9-7 

6-5 

36.6 

2J-7 

Fat  

0.7 

o-3 

3-2 

i-9 

Ash          .... 

2.O 

9-5 

Albuminoids  and  Amides 

i-S 

7.6 

ILLECEBRACE.E 

Annual  Knawel  (Scleranthus  annuus  L.)  is  a  small 
tufted  annual  (or  biennial)  under  a  foot  high,  with 
slender  branched  prostrate  stems,  nearly  awl-shaped 
leaves  of  about  \  inch  long,  placed  opposite  one 
another  in  pairs,  and  small  green  flowers  in  clusters 
at  the  end  of  the  stems  or  singly  in  the  axils  lower 
down.  The  flowers  open  from  June  to  September. 
The  fruits  are  one-seeded.  This  weed  (Fig.  15)  is 
common  on  arable  land,  especially  on  light,  sandy 
soils,  where  it  may  prove  troublesome.  The  seeds 
are  sometimes  found  in  samples  of  clover  and  grass 
seeds. 

When  this  weed  is  at  all  plentiful  it  should  be  hoed 
out  ;  in  corn  crops,  surface  cultivation  in  spring  (see  p. 
34)  quickly  reduces  it.  Crops  which  grow  vigorously 


1  Farm  Foods,  pp.  300  and  302. 


76  COMMON    WEEDS 

— e.g.  vetches — smother  it  out.       If  very  plentiful    in 
young  clover,  the  latter  may  be  cut  early  for  hay. 


FIG.  15.— Annual  Knawel  (Scleranthus  annuus  L.),  nat.  size, 
with  flower  magnified. 


GERANIACE.E 

Three  species  of  Geranium  or  Crane's-bill  commonly 
occur  as  weeds  of  arable  land.  All  are  annual  or 
biennial  weeds,  all  flower  between  the  months  of  May 
and  September,  and  in  all  the  fruit  is  extended  into 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


77 


a  long  "  beak/'  re- 
sembling the  bill  of  a 
crane,  hence  the  name 
Crane's-bill  (Geranium  is 
derived  from  the  Greek 
geranos,  a  crane). 

Dove's-foot  Crane's- 
bill  (Geranium  molle  L.) 
is  softly  hairy,  prostrate 
in  habit,  with  branches 
up  to  i  foot  long,  leaves 
somewhat  round,  and 
seven-  to  nine-lobed,  and 
rose-purple  or  pink 
flowers  nearly  J  inch  in 
diameter.  This  species 
chiefly  occurs  on  light, 
sandy,  loamy  and  cal- 
careous soils,  and  the 
seeds  are  commonly 
found  as  an  impurity  in 
samples  of  white  clover. 

Cut-leaved  Crane's- 
bill  (G.  dissectum  L.)  is  a 
hairy  weed,  with  long, 
slender,  spreading, 
branched  stems;  roundish 
leaves  divided  nearly  to 
the  base  into  five  to 
seven  lobes,  which  are 
themselves  segmented, 
and  bright  red  flowers 
nearly  J  inch  across. 
This  weed  (Fig.  16)  is 
found  in  positions  similar  to  G.  mo/le,  and  its  seeds 


FIG.  16.-  Cut-leaved  Crane's-bill  (Geranium 
dissectum  L.),  x^,  with  flower  nat.  size. 


78  COMMON    WEEDS 

are  a  frequent  impurity  in  samples  of  clover  and  rye- 
grass  seeds. 

Herb  Robert  (G.  Robertianum  L.)  is  a  well-known 
flower  of  hedgerows,  roadsides,  and  waste  places,  but 
occurs  also  in  both  grass  and  arable  land,  especially 
on  loamy,  clayey,  and  calcareous  soils.  It  is  the  most 
common  and  generally  distributed  of  the  Crane's-bills. 
The  straggling  branched  stems  are  reddish,  brittle,  and 
somewhat  hairy ;  the  leaves  are  segmented  and  pinna- 
tifid,  and  in  autumn  become  reddish  like  the  stems  ; 
the  flowers,  J  inch  across,  are  bright  pink,  elegantly 
veined  and  streaked  with  dark  and  light  red.  The  whole 
plant  has  a  strong,  but  not  altogether  unpleasant,  smell. 

Wherever  the  Crane's-bills  occur  in  cultivated  crops 
they  should  be  eradicated,  more  especially  when  clovers 
or  grasses  are  intended  for  seed.  They  may  be  re- 
moved by  hand  from  clovers  and  rotation  grasses,  and 
this  should  be  done  early  before  the  seed  is  ripened. 
All  are  propagated  only  by  seed,  and  in  hoed  crops 
therefore  may  easily  be  destroyed,  as  they  are  seldom 
very  plentiful  in  such  positions.  As  regards  grass  land, 
see  p.  159. 

ROSACES 

Silver-weed  or  Goose  Grass  (Potentilla  Anserina  L.) 
is  a  perennial  weed  of  prostrate  habit,  very  common  by 
roadsides,  its  glossy,  silky,  silvery-white  pinnate  leaves, 
bright  yellow  flowers,  and  long  runners  making  it  a 
conspicuous  object  in  the  summer  months  (Fig.  17). 
It  is  occasionally  a  serious  pest  on  arable  land,  growing 
well  on  almost  all  soils,  especially  when  these  are 
damp.  Silver-weed  is  not  easily  eradicated,  as  the 
runners  are  readily  broken,  and,  as  they  root  at  the 
nodes,  small  pieces  form  new  plants.  Where  the  weed 
is  a  pest  it  should  be  given  no  rest  during  which  it  can 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


79 


re-establish  itself.  Extra  deep  ploughing,  with  the  use 
of  a  skim  coulter,  will  kill  much  of  it,  and  in  ordinary 
tillage  operations  much  may  be  gathered  and  burnt 
after  harrowing.  Two  fallow  crops,  such  as  potatoes 
and  mangolds,  may  also"  be  taken  in  succession,  so  as 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Lon?. 


FIG.  17. — Silver-weed  (Potentilla  Anserina  L.). 


to  afford  an  opportunity  for  continual  cultivating  and 
hoeing. 

It  has  been  recorded1  by  Mr.  W.  E.  de  Winton, 
Pembroke,  that  wood-pigeons  are  at  certain  times  partial 
to  the  "  sweet  and  succulent  root  of  the  Silver-weed," 
while  pheasants  also  eat  it.  Some  pigeons,  indeed, 
"  seemed  to  prefer  an  exclusive  diet  of  this  root." 

Creeping  Cinquefoil  (Potentilla  reptans  L.)  is  a  peren- 
nial of  similar  habit  to  the  last-named  species,  with 
runners  rooting  at  the  joints,  long  stalked  leaves  divided 
into  five  lobes,  and  solitary  yellow  flowers  on  slender 

1  four.  Bd.  Agric.,  Feb.  1908,  p.  686. 


8o 


COMMON    WEEDS 


stalks.  The  flowers  appear  from  June  to  August.  Like 
P.  Anserina,  it  occurs  by  roadsides,  in  pastures,  and  in 
arable  land,  and  should  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way. 
(See  also  p.  164.) 

Parsley    Piert,     Field    Lady's    Mantle     (Alchemilla 
arvensis    Lamk.)    is    a    small    annual    (Fig.     18)    often 


'  Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FlG.  18. — Lady's  Mantle  (Alchemilla,  arvensis  Lamk.) 

common   in   cornfields  on  dry,  loamy,  and  calcareous 
soils.      It   is  a  hairy  plant,   4  to   9   inches  high,   with 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


81 


small  fan-like  leaves  which   appear  to   clasp  the   stem 
like   an    inverted   mantle,   while   the    dense   clusters  of 
minute  green  flowers,  appearing  from   May  to  August, 
are  crowded  in  the  axils. 
Where  this  weed    occurs 
in  quantity  it   should   be 
hoed  out  ;  the  growth  of 
a  root  crop  reduces  it. 

UMBELLIFER^: 

Shepherd's    Needle 

(Scandix  Pecten-Veneris  L.), 
also  known  as  Needles, 
Venus'  Comb,  and  Crow's 
Needles,  is  an  annual  weed 
of  cornfields,  especially  on 
light  and  chalky  soils,  and 
is  sometimes  very  trouble- 
some. In  North  Lincoln- 
shire, for  example,  it 
appears  to  grow,  like 
Ranunculus  arvensis  (p.  52), 
exclusively  on  the  Chalk 
formation,  and  not  on  the 
Oolite.  "  Needles  seem  to 
favour  the  thinner  soils  on 
chalk,  and  come  in  any 

Corn      Crop,      autumn       Or    FIG.  _i9.-S_hepherd's    Needle   (Scandix 

spring  sown.    Not  trouble- 
some on  the  strong  land, 
which  runs  in  some  places  in  valleys  or  on  the  edge,  of 
the  chalk  "  (W.  C.  B.).    Hooker  describes  the  Shepherd's 
Needle  as  "  a  cornfield  weed  from  Ross  southwards." 
The  Shepherd's  Needle  (Fig.  19)  is  a  small   plant  of 

F 


Pecten-  Veneris  L. ),  x  £ ,  with  enlarged 
flower. 


82 


COMMON    WEEDS 


6  to  1 8  inches  high,  much  branched  from  the  base, 
somewhat  hairy,  with  leaves  finely  cut  into  slender 
segments.  The  umbels  of  small  white  flowers  are  at 
the  end  and  side  of  the  stem,  and  the  fruit  is  prolonged 
into  a  very  slender  rough  beak,  i  to  3  inches  long, 
hence  the  names  of  the  plant. 
Flowering  occurs  between  June 
and  September. 

This  weed  is  perhaps  of  suffi- 
ciently early  growth  in  spring  for 
much  of  it  to  be  destroyed  by 
surface  cultivation,  but  in  corn 
crops  it  may  be  necessary  to  hand 
pull  it,  although  this  is  too  tedious 
and  expensive  an  operation  on 
large  areas.  Where  very  plentiful 
it  is  worth  while  to  take  two  root 
crops  in  succession ;  a  late  sown 
turnip  crop  permits  of  much  of  the 
weed  being  destroyed.  Seeding 
must  be  prevented. 

Hedge  Parsley  (Torilis  nodosa 
L.)  is  a  plant  which  occurs  on  dry 
banks,  in  hedges,  and  along  the 
margins  of  fields  "  from  Forfar 
southwards,  rather  rare  in  Scot- 
land and  Ireland"  (Hooker).  It 
FIG.  20.— Hedge  Parsley  (To-  is  common  in  calcareous  corn- 

ri Us  nodosa  L. ).  x  i,  with  •  r    ,  ,  ,  i          i_  •    i 

enlarged  flower!  fields,   and    is    an    annual    which 

flowers     in     May     to     July.       Its 

stems  are  6  to  18  inches  high:  ''Well  distinguished 
from  all  other  British  umbelliferous  plants  by  its 
prostrate  stem,  its  very  small,  almost  globular,  simple, 
lateral,  and  nearly  sessile  umbels  of  small  pinkish- 
white  flowers,  and  by  the  outer  fruits  in  each  umbel 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  83 

being  covered  with  hooked  bristles;  while  the  inner 
are  warty."  1 

This  plant  (Fig.  20)  should  be  cut  down  regularly 
before  seeding  takes  place,  and  if  this  be  done  it  will  be 
materially  reduced  in  two  or  three  years. 

Fool's  Parsley  (/Ethusa  Cynapium  L.),  described  at 
p.  298,  is  an  annual  weed  of  gardens  and  arable  land 
generally.  In  North  Lincolnshire  it  appears  to  be  very 
annoying  on  the  low  clayey  peaty  alluvium,  and  is 
difficult  to  eradicate,  even  a  bare  fallow  in  1908  failing 
to  reduce  it  effectively,  the  wheat  crop  in  1909  being 
full  of  it.  As  the  weed  is  an  annual,  two  successive 
root  crops  should  materially  reduce  it,  if  hoeing  be 
regularly  and  faithfully  practised.  Fool's  Parsley  is 
poisonous,  and  should  be  hoed  out  or  hand  pulled 
wherever  it  appears. 

RUBIACE^E 

Cleavers  (Galiimi  Aparine  L.),  commonly  termed 
Goose-grass,  Cliver,  Hariff,  Gliders,  Clithe,  Grip-grass, 
or  Catch-weed,  is  a  weak  hook-climber  which  occurs 
on  all  soils  on  arable  land,  in  hedges  and  waste  places. 
This  weed  (Fig.  2 1)  is  a  straggling  annual,  often  climbing 
several  feet  with  sufficient  support,  and  forming  tangled 
masses  amongst  other  vegetation.  The  stems  are  four- 
angled,  and  bear  small,  stout  hooked  hairs,  by  means  of 
which  the  weed  obtains  support  on  other  plants  ;  the 
leaves  are  narrow  and  lanceolate,  \  to  2  inches  long, 
and  arranged  in  whorls  of  six  to  eight ;  the  small  flowers 
appearing  in  June  and  July  are  white,  in  small  clusters, 
and  grow  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves;  the  large,  roundish, 
two-lobed  fruits  are  purplish,  very  rough,  and  adhere 
closely  to  the  clothes  of  man  or  the  fur  of  animals,  by 

1  Johns,  Flowers  of  the  Field. 


COMMON    WEEDS 


FIG.  21.— Left :  Cleavers  (Galium  Aparine  L.),  with  seedling  x  §,  and  flower  nat 
size.    Right :  Field  Madder  (Sherardia  arvensis  L.),  x§,  and  flower  nat.  size. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  85 

whom  they  are  easily  distributed.  The  whole  plant  is 
very  rough  to  the  touch  ;  it  is  often  chopped  up  and 
fed  to  poultry. 

Cleavers  is  especially  troublesome  among  cereal  crops 
on  light,  loamy  soils,  climbing  among  the  corn,  pulling 
it  down,  and  rendering  harvesting  difficult.  The  fruits 
are  found  in  samples  of  red  clover,  Italian  ryegrass, 
and  seed  corn,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are 
not  in  this  way  introduced  to  the  farm.  Percival  says, 
"  In  some  of  the  worst  cases  we  have  seen  the  weed 
was  brought  to  the  farm  by  dung  containing  the  seeds," 
and  this  source  of  contamination  should  be  guarded 
against.  The  seedlings  (Fig.  21)  are  much  like  the 
mature  plants,  and  easily  recognisable.  The  pest  is 
most  conveniently  eradicated  by  hoeing  during  the 
spring  months,  and  by  surface  cultivation  generally. 

Corn  Bedstraw  (Galium  tricorne  With.)  closely  re- 
sembles Cleavers,  but  is  smaller  and  has  more  prostrate 
stems  ;  the  fruits  are  large,  with  no  clinging  hooks,  and 
are  borne  on  slender  recurved  stalks.  It  is  an  annual 
weed  of  cornfields,  especially  on  chalk  soils,  from 
Cumberland  southwards,  but  apparently  absent  from 
Scotland  and  Ireland  (Hooker).  The  flowers  appear 
from  June  to  October.  It  should  be  dealt  with  in  the 
same  way  as  Cleavers. 

Field  Madder  (Sherardia  arvensis  L.)  is  a  small,  much- 
branched  prostrate  annual,  with  stems  6  to  18  inches 
long.  The  narrow,  pointed,  obovate-lanceolate  leaves 
are  under  an  inch  in  length,  and  in  whorls  of  four  to 
six  ;  the  small  lilac  flowers,  which  open  from  April  to 
October,  are  1  inch  in  diameter,  in  terminal  sessile 
clusters  ;  the  two-lobed  fruits  are  small  and  rough, 
crowned  by  the  erect,  spiny  calyx-teeth. 

Field  Madder  (Fig.  21)  is  often  very  plentiful  in 
cultivated  fields,  and  occurs  particularly  on  light  sandy, 


86  COMMON    WEEDS 

loamy,  and  calcareous  soils.  The  fruits  are  a  fairly 
common  impurity  in  red  clover  samples  and  in  samples 
of  Italian  ryegrass.  Like  other  annuals  it  must  be 
attacked  by  means  of  the  hoe  and  by  surface  cultivation 
from  quite  early  in  spring,  as  it  flowers  and  seeds  from 
April  onwards.  Pure  farm  seeds  should  be  sown. 


COMPOSITE 

Cornflower,  Corn  Bluebottle  (Centaurea  Cyanus  L.)  is 
an  annual  or  biennial  i  to  2  feet  high,  with  blue  flowers, 
and  is  a  favourite  garden  plant,  there  being  several 
cultivated  varieties  of  different  colours.  Flowering  takes 
place  from  June  to  September,  and  the  seeds  are  easily 
scattered  by  the  wind.  Although  the  Cornflower  appears 
occasionally  in  grass  land,  it  is,  as  its  name  implies, 
chiefly  a  weed  of  cornfields,  and  it  is  said  to  be  a  good 
index  of  poor  sandy  soils.  Hoed  crops  and  surface 
cultivation  during  the  spring  months  reduce  it ;  care 
should  be  taken  that  samples  of  red  clover,  trifolium, 
and  grass  seeds  are  free  from  its  seeds. 

Creeping  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis  L.)  is  typically  a 
weed  of  arable  land,  and  is,  as  stated  at  p.  180,  held 
by  some  to  be  the  commonest  weed  pest  of  agriculture. 

A  general  account  of  this  Thistle  is  given  with  other 
species  at  p.  180,  and  the  harm  it  does  in  corn  crops 
is  there  noted.  The  creeping  roots  often  run  deeply 
into  the  soil,  and  are  propagated  in  every  direction 
horizontally,  while  the  flowers  produce  an  abundance 
of  seed  which  is  distributed  by  the  wind  to  great  dis- 
tances, thus  causing  neighbouring  crops  to  be  infested. 
Flowering  unfortunately  takes  place  between  July  and 
September,  during  the  time  of  harvest,  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  its  seeds  is  ensured  during  the  process  of 
cutting  and  carting  corn.  Where  this  pest  is  found  in 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  87 

corn  crops  great  care  should  be  taken  to  hoe  early  and 
late  in  spring,  and  pull  up  the  Thistle  by  hand  as  long 
as  it  is  possible  to  get  among  the  standing  corn. 

The  creeping  roots  are  easily  broken  by  the  plough, 
cultivator,  or  harrows,  and  this  renders  the  pest  almost 
more  difficult  to  deal  with  than  Couch  (Triticum  repens) 
or  Bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis). 

The  only  final  method  of  reducing  the  Creeping 
Thistle  consists  in  destroying  the  rootstocks,  and  this 
can  be  done  by  the  process  of  exhaustion — cutting  off 
all  shoots  that  appear  until  the  reserve  of  food  in  the 
roots  is  used  up.  Faithful,  systematic  work  will  in 
this  way  almost  certainly  have  the  desired  effect,  and 
it  is  this  principle  which  is  involved  in  the  statement 
that  "  the  growth  of  a  couple  of  root  crops  in  succession 
where  the  weed  is  very  prevalent  in  arable  land  is  a 
sure  plan  of  getting  rid  of  this  most  troublesome  agri- 
cultural pest."1  In  root  crops  the  hoe  must  be  kept 
regularly  at  work  ;  it  is  not  enough  merely  to  prevent 
seeding :  the  new  shoots  must  be  prevented  from  at- 
taining any  size  and  strength,  the  end  in  view  being  to 
encourage  the  roots  to  throw  up  successive  batches  of 
shoots  for  the  hoe  and  the  sun  to  destroy. 

Other  species  of  Thistles  which  occur  in  arable  land 
may  be  similarly  attacked,  but  except  in  the  case  of  the 
Corn  Sow  Thistle  (p.  101),  creeping  rootstocks  do  not 
make  the  process  so  difficult. 

Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara  L.),  known  also  as  Foal's- 
foot,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds 
of  arable  land,  and  questions  are  frequently  asked  as 
to  its  eradication.  It  produces  a  dense  mass  of  creep- 
ing rootstocks,  and  is  one  of  the  few  plants,  like  Butter- 
bur,  which  send  up  their  flower  stalks  before  the  leaves. 
Thick  flowering  stalks,  4  to  1 2  inches  high,  and  bearing 

1  Leaflet  No.  166,  Bd.  Agric, 


88 


COMMON    WEEDS 


many  scaly  bracts,  appear  during  the  months  of 
February  or  March  and  April,  and  at  the  summit  of 
each  is  a  yellow  head  of  flowers,  over  i  inch  in 
diameter  (Fig.  22).  In  the  bud  stage  the  heads  are 
drooping.  In  the  seeding  stage  the  heads  are  covered 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  22. — Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara  L.),  as  seen  in  March,  and  showing  the 
extensively  creeping  rootstock. 

with  a  soft  snowy  pappus.  The  flowers  are  followed 
by  large  stalked  leaves  (Figs.  2  and  23),  often  nearly  a 
foot  broad, tf  cobwebby  "  above,  and  covered  with  dense 
white  down  beneath  ;  the  leaves  continue  during 
summer  to  manufacture  food  material  for  storage  in 
the  creeping  rootstock  for  the  production  of  flowers  in 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  89 

the   next  year.     They  are  somewhat  like  a  foal's  foot 
in  shape,  hence  the  names  of  the  plant. 

Coltsfoot  is  especially  a  weed  of  moist  or  wet  stiff 
soils,  particularly  if  calcareous,  an  abundance  of  lime 
appearing  to  be  favourable  to  it.  The  weed  is  very 
harmful  for  two  reasons  :  (a)  The  extensively  creeping 
rootstock  monopolises  the  ground  to  the  detriment  of 
the  cultivated  crop  ;  and  (b)  the  large  broad  leaves 
cut  off  the  light  supply  from  the  young  growing  corn 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  23. — Piece  of  ground  infested  with  Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara  L.), 
showing  the  leaves  beginning  to  cover  the  ground  after  flowering  is  nearly 
over. 

or  other  plants.  Several  methods  of  attacking  Colts- 
foot may  be  followed:  (i)  The  flowering  stems  must 
be  sought  and  cut  early  in  the  year  in  order  to  pre- 
vent seeding — this  operation  is  of  great  importance, 
for  as  it  is  useless  to  lock  the  stable  after  the  horse  is 
stolen,  so  it  is  a  poor  plan  to  cut  the  leaves  of  Coltsfoot 
and  dig  out  the  rootstocks  while  seeding  is  permitted  ; 
(2)  if  the  leaves  appear  in  the  cultivated  crop  they 
must  be  repeatedly  cut  off,  this  procedure  tending  to 
exhaust  the  reserves  of  food  in  the  rootstock  and  pre- 


90  COMMON    WEEDS 

vent  the  manufacture  and  storage  of  fresh  material ; 
(3)  fairly  deep  draining  may  be  necessary,  for  Colts- 
foot does  not  flourish  on  dry  soils ;  (4)  deep  plough- 
ing and  cultivating,  during  hot  weather,  with  the 
removal  of  the  rootstocks,  will  materially  reduce  it ; 
(5)  the  amelioration  of  the  soil  by  the  use  of  sand, 
ashes,  and  long  farmyard  manure  will  render  the  task 
of  extirpation  more  easy ;  (6)  the  growth  of  dense 
crops  like  maize  and  vetches  tends  to  reduce  it,  since 
it  requires  a  good  light  supply,  which  is  cut  off  by 
such  crops. 

Corn  Chamomile  (Anthemis  arvensis  L.)  is  a  hairy 
annual  of  arable  land,  especially  of  cornfields.  It  is 
i  to  2  feet  high,  "  usually  erect  from  a  decumbent 
base,"  and  much  branched.  The  leaves  are  much 
divided  into  short  linear  segments,  almost  hair-like  ; 
and  the  flower  heads  are  on  long  stalks,  the  outer 
florets  being  white,  and  having  styles  ;  the  central  or 
disk  florets  are  yellow.  The  receptacle  of  the  flower 
head  of  this  and  following  species  has  small,  thin, 
membranous  bracts  upon  it  among  the  flowers. 
Flowering  takes  place  between  June  and  August. 

Stinking  Mayweed  or  Stinking  Chamomile  (Anthemis 
Cotula  L.)  much  resembles  the  last  species,  but  is  a 
few  inches  shorter,  with  thinner  flower  stalks.  The 
leaves  are  more  cut  into  hair-like  segments  and  dotted 
with  glands,  and  the  plant  has  a  strong  foetid  odour. 
The  white  ray  florets  are  usually  barren — without 
styles.  It  is  an  acrid  weed,  the  crushed  foliage  often 
blistering  the  hands  of  those  who  gather  it.  This  weed 
(Fig.  24)  is  often  very  troublesome  in  arable  land, 
especially  cornfields.  It  is  annual,  and  flowers  between 
June  and  September. 

Wild  Chamomile  (Matricaria  Chaniomilla  L.)  is  also 
a  common  annual  weed  of  cornfields,  flowering  from 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  91 

June  to  August.  The  plant  is  much  branched,  and  in 
general  appearance  resembles  A.  arvensis  and  Matricaria 
inodora,  but  is  smooth.  The  leaves  are  bipinnate,  and 


FIG.  24.  — Left :  Corn  Marigold  (Chrysanthemum  segetum  L. ),  x  \, 
Right:  Stinking  Mayweed  (Anthemis  Cotula  L.),  x£. 

divided  into  narrow  hair-like  segments  ;  the  flower 
heads,  in  corymbose  clusters,  are  only  \  to  f  inch  in 
diameter,  with  an  outer  row  of  white  florets,  and  a 
central  yellow  disk.  The  receptacle  of  the  flower  head 


92  COMMON    WEEDS 

is  hollow  and  conical,  and  there  are  no  bracts  among 
the  flowers. 

Scentless  Mayweed  (Matricaria  inodora  L.),  also  called 
Corn  Feverfew  and  Horse  Daisy,  is  a  common  annual 
or  biennial  weed  of  arable  land  and  waste  ground  on 
all  soils  (Fig.  25).  The  stem  is  branched  and  angular, 
the  leaves  much  cut  and  hair-like,  and  the  heads  soli- 
tary, and  larger  than  in  M.  Chamomilla,  being  2  inches 
in  diameter.  The  whole  plant  is  odourless,  or  nearly 
so.  Flowering  lasts  from  June  to  October. 

These  four  weeds  may  all  prove  troublesome  if 
allowed  to  seed,  and,  as  all  are  annual  or  biennial,  the 
chief  method  of  reducing  them  consists  in  preventing 
seeding.  This  may  be  done  by  hoeing  and  surface 
cultivation  in  spring,  by  pulling  up  the  growing  plants 
so  long  as  practicable  in  standing  corn,  and  by  the 
growth  and  thorough  cultivation  of  root  crops — two 
in  succession  if  necessary. 

Corn  Marigold  or  Yellow  Ox-eye  (Chrysanthemum 
segetum  L.)  is  a  beautiful  but  destructive  annual  weed, 
i  to  ii  feet  high.  It  (Fig.  24)  is  smooth,  light  grey 
in  appearance,  and  little  branched.  The  leaves  are 
somewhat  oblong,  toothed  and  lobed,  the  lower  pinnate 
and  stalked  and  the  upper  clasping  the  stem.  The  flower 
heads  are  golden-yellow,  including  the  outer  or  ray- 
florets,  and  nearly  2  inches  across  ;  they  open  between 
June  and  September,  or  even  October.  The  "  seeds," 
which  are  produced  in  large  numbers,  are  very  light, 
and  easily  blown  from  field  to  field  ;  they  are  said 
also  to  lie  dormant  like  the  seeds  of  Charlock  ;  by 
reason  of  these  facts  the  weed  is  very  difficult  to 
extirpate  completely.  Both  seeds  and  flower  heads 
are  stated  to  be  poisonous,  and  chaff  containing  many 
should  be  burnt  and  not  given  to  stock.  Thaer  states J 

1  Landw.  Unkrduter. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  93 

that   the   seeds   pass   through   the   digestive  system  of 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C."Long, 

FIG.  25. — Scentless  Mayweed  (Matricaria  inodora  L.). 

the    horse    and    other    animals    without    losing    their 


94  COMMON    WEEDS 

vitality,  and  suggests  that  where  chaff  contains  only  a 
few  it  should  be  steamed  before  use. 

The  Corn  Marigold  is  often  very  troublesome,  especi- 
ally on  sandy  and  loamy  soils,  and  in  1907  it  was 
reported  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  as  doing  much 
damage  at  Northallerton.  "  An  attempt  had  been 
made  to  eradicate  it  by  taking  four  successive  green 
crops,  but  the  weed  was  stated  to  be  as  flourishing  as 
ever.  The  present  year  has  been  very  favourable  to 
its  growth,  and  it  has  practically  destroyed  2  acres 
of  barley  and  nearly  destroyed  a  third,  the  2  acres 
being  so  bad  that  harvesting  of  the  crop  was  not 
attempted."  ] 

This  weed  was  troublesome  to  farmers  a  century  ago. 
"This  plant  (C.  segetum)  may  still  be  found  in  our  corn- 
fields, although  careful  farming  has  greatly  diminished 
its  places  of  habitation,  and  shortly  it  may  find  the 
garden  its  only  place  of  refuge.  It  is  a  very  trouble- 
some weed  to  the  farmer,  particularly  in  the  turnip 
fields  of  Norfolk,  on  a  sandy  soil.  In  Denmark  there 
is  a  law  to  oblige  farmers  to  root  it  up  out  of  their 
fields  ;  and  Threlkeld  states,  in  1727,  that  in  Britain 
"  Maunour  courts  do  amerce  careless  tenants  who 
do  not  weed  it  out  before  it  comes  to  seed,"  a 
laudable  practice  worthy  of  being  retained.2 

Where  the  Corn  Marigold  occurs  some  trouble  will 
be  necessary  to  bring  about  its  extermination,  or  even 
a  great  reduction  in  its  numbers. 

As  the  "  seeds  "  occur  in  seed  corn,  and  in  samples 
of  red  clover,  sainfoin,  and  other  grasses,  an  obvious 
means  of  preventing  infestation  on  clean  farms  is  to 
ensure  a  clean  seed  supply. 

Where  the    Corn    Marigold  is   a   pest,  care   should 

1  Jotir.  Bd.  Agric.,  December,  1907. 

2  Sowerby's  English  Botany r,  Ed.  3,  vol.  v.  p.  <o. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  95 

be  taken  to  destroy  all  seeds  in  chaff  and  thrashing 
refuse  before  giving  these  to  stock.  Thorough  steam- 
ing or  cooking  will  suffice  for  this  purpose.  All  waste 
from  thrashing  which  is  not  given  to  stock  should  be 
burnt. 

Should  the  weed  be  present  on  a  farm,  the  seeds 
should  be  encouraged  to  germinate  in  spring,  and  the 
young  plants  destroyed  by  hoeing  and  surface  cultiva- 
tion. Later,  hand  pulling  should  be  resorted  to  in 
corn  crops  ;  and  since  the  object  is  to  prevent  seeding, 
the  removed  plants  should  be  burnt,  for,  as  Fream  says,  of 
this  plant,1  "  It  is  possessed  of  great  vitality,  and  when 
pulled  up  and  thrown  aside,  does  not  perish  and 
decompose,  but  continues  growing  and  ripens  its 
seed."  As  to  the  effect  of  lime,  see  pp.  41,  151. 

A  good  practice  is  to  take  two  or  more  root  crops 
in  succession,  these  enabling  free  and  continued 
hoeing,  and  the  consequent  destruction  of  young 
plants  which  may  be  encouraged  to  grow  by  surface 
cultivation.  As  the  seeds  appear  to  possess  great 
vitality  it  may  be  needful  to  combat  this  weed  for 
some  years  in  succession,  the  chief  object  being  always  to 
prevent  seeding  of  the  plants  which  appear.  It  would  be 
well  for  neighbouring  farmers  to  co-operate  in  de- 
stroying this  as  well  as  other  weeds. 

Tansy  (Tanacetum  vulgare  L.)  is  a  strong -scented, 
shrubby  perennial  2  to  3  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  alter- 
nate on  the  stem  and  much  divided,  the  segments 
being  toothed  ;  the  lower  leaves  are  stalked,  but  the 
upper  clasp  the  stem.  The  heads  are  small,  ij  inch 
in  diameter,  dull  yellow  in  colour,  and  arranged  in 
corymbose  clusters,  somewhat  like  umbels.  The  flowers, 
which  have  been  described  as  button-like,  appear  in 
August  and  September.  In  arable  land  this  weed  may 

1  Complete  Grazier,  p.  858. 


96  COMMON    WEEDS 

usually  be  kept  within  bounds  by  thorough  and  "clean" 
cultivation. 

Marsh  Cudweed  (Gnaphalium  uliginosum  L.)  is  a  small 
branched  annual  weed  of  3  to  6  inches  high.  It  is  woolly 
or  cottony,  of  a  delicate  silvery-white  colour,  and  has 
small,  narrow  leaves  which  reach  beyond,  or  over-top, 
the  terminal  clusters  of  small  sessile  heads  of  flowers, 
which  open  between  July  and  September.  This  weed 
is  common  in  arable  land,  more  especially  perhaps  in 
cornfields,  where,  being  small,  it  has  a  better  chance  of 
appearing.  It  favours  damp,  light  sandy  soils,  "  especi- 
ally where  water  has  stood  during  winter"  (Johns). 
Although  small  it  may,  if  very  plentiful,  do  some 
damage  by  crowding  the  roots  of  corn  and  other  crops. 
It  may  be  reduced  by  hoeing  and  thorough  cultivation. 
(See  also  p.  187.) 

Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris  L.)  is  a  weed  of  almost  all 
soils,  and  is  especially  prolific  and  plentiful  on  good 
land.  It  may  sometimes  occur  in  gardens  and  on  rich 
arable  fields  in  almost  incredible  quantity,  completely 
smothering  any  young  crop.  As  a  green  food  for  cage 
birds  it  is  almost  as  well  known  by  townspeople  as  by 
dwellers  in  the  country.  Groundsel  (Fig.  26)  is  a  succu- 
lent branched  annual,  6  to  1 5  inches  high,  with  ragged, 
coarsely  toothed  and  cut  leaves;  the  small  heads  of  yellow 
flowers,  i  inch  in  diameter,  are  placed  several  together 
in  clusters,  each  head  on  a  short  stalk.  In  the  fruiting 
stage  the  short  pappus  hairs  give  the  heads  the  appear- 
ance of  silky  balls.  This  weed  flowers  almost  all  the 
year  round,  one  plant  continuing  to  produce  flowers 
and  seeds  for  some  months.  Growth  is  rapid,  and,  if 
permitted,  the  plants  quickly  produce  silky  ribbed  fruits, 
which  are  widely  scattered  by  the  wind. 

Groundsel  must  be  combated  in  gardens  by  the 
repeated  and  vigorous  use  of  the  hoe  while  the  plants 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


97 


are  still  seedlings.      In  field  cultivation  both  the  horse 
and  hand  hoe  must  be  kept  busy  in  root  crops. 


Photo,  1908.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  26. — Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris  L.),  flowering  plant  and  seedlings, 

Nipplewort    (Lapsana    communis    L.)    is    a    common 
annual  weed  of  cultivated  land,  hedgerows,  and  waste 

G 


98  COMMON    WEEDS 

ground,  and  occurs  also  on  the  borders  of  grass  fields. 
It  appears  to  grow  best  on  loamy  and  clayey  soils. 
Nipplewort  (Fig.  27)  is  a  slender,  branched  weed  i  to  4 
feet  in  height,  and  contains  a  milky  juice.  The  upper 
leaves  are  small,  entire,  and  scattered,  while  those  at 
the  base  contract  into  the  stalk,  and  are  thin  and  lobed, 


FIG.  27. — Nipplewort  (Lapsana  communis  L.),  x  about  \. 
i.  Floret ;  and  2.  Achene,  x  about  2. 


the  terminal  lobe  being  large.  The  heads  of  few  yellow 
florets  are  J  inch  in  diameter  on  slender  stalks.  The 
pale  brownish-yellow  fruits  often  occur  as  an  impurity 
in  clover  and  grass  seeds. 

This  weed  is  easily  kept  within  bounds  by  thorough 
cultivation  and  the  free  use  of  the  hoe,  combined  with 
hand  pulling  where  it  occurs  among  corn  crops  or  in 
young  clover  or  "  seeds." 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  99 

Wild  Chicory  (Cichorium  Intybus  L.)  or  Succory,  the 
cultivated  form  of  which  is  so  extensively  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  chicory  for  admixture  with  coffee,  is  a 
stout  perennial,  rather  rough,  with  large  tapering  fleshy 
roots.  It  occurs  on  waste  ground  and  roadsides 
throughout  England,  but  is  "  rare,  if  native,  in  Scot- 
land and  Ireland"  (Hooker).  The  stem  is  i  to  3  feet 
high,  alternately  branched,  tough,  angled  and  grooved  ; 
the  stem  leaves  are  small,  more  or  less  oblong-lanceo- 
late and  clasping  the  stem,  but  the  lower  leaves  are  6 
to  8  inches  long,  and  resemble  those  of  the  Dandelion  ; 
and  there  are  many  heads,  i  to  ii  inch  in  diameter,  of 
delicate,  bright  blue  flowers,  the  individual  florets  of 
which  are  clearly  five-toothed.  The  flowers  appear 
between  July  and  October,  and  usually  close  about 
mid-day.  An  average  plant  is  stated l  to  produce  about 
3,000  seeds. 

Chicory  may  sometimes  be  found  troublesome  on 
arable  land,  especially  on  light  sandy  or  calcareous 
soils,  and  in  districts  where  the  plant  has  been  culti- 
vated in  the  past.  The  seeds  occur  as  an  impurity  in 
samples  of  clover  seeds  and  Italian  ryegrass.  It  should 
be  attacked  by  careful  and  persistent  spudding  to  pre- 
vent seeding  or  even  strong  growth  above  ground  ;  by 
removal  of  the  roots  during  ploughing  and  cultivating 
operations  ;  shortening  the  rotation,  taking  more  root 
crops,  which  should  be  persistently  hoed.  It  has  been 
said  that  "  Chicory  is  not  often  seen  in  good  farming 
districts  except  as  a  wayside  weed."  2 

Annual  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  oleraceus  L.)  is  fre- 
quently very  troublesome  in  arable  land,  and  appears 
to  grow  most  freely  on  medium  sandy  and  calcareous 
soils.  In  gardens,  too,  it  is  often  much  too  common, 

1  Ont.  Agric.  Coll.,  Bull.  128. 

2  Farm  Weeds,  Dept.  Agric.,  Ottawa. 


IOO 


COMMON    WEEDS 


This  Sow  Thistle  (Fig.  28)  is  an  erect  annual,  i  to  3  feet 
high,   with  a  tubular  grooved  stem,   branched,  smooth 

and  shiny,  and 
"  bleeding  "  with  a 
milky  juice  when 
broken.  The  lower 
leaves  are  stalked 
and  much  lobed,  and 
the  upper  ones  are 
lobed  or  entire, 
angular  and  toothed, 
and  clasping  the 
stem.  The  crowded 
heads  of  yellow 
flowers  are  smooth 
or  slightly  cottony, 
nearly  i  inch  in  dia- 
meter, and  appear 
between  June  and 
September.  The  pale 
brown  fruits  are 
attached  to  a  feathery 
pappus,  by  means  of 
which  they  are  borne 
away  by  the  wind 
and  distributed  far 
and  wide. 

Wherever  the 
Annual  Sow  Thistle 
occurs  the  chief  ob- 
ject is  to  prevent 
seeding  ;  this  end 
may  be  attained  by 

cutting  down  the   young   plants  with  the  hoe  as  fast 
as  they   appear,  and  pulling   out   by  hand  any  which 


Photo,  1908. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  28.— Annual  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus 
oleraceus  L.). 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  101 

may  escape  notice  and  reach  the  flowering  stage. 
The  latter  may  be  most  easily  effected  after  rain  has 
softened  the  ground.  Surface  cultivation  in  spring, 
so  frequently  recommended  in  these  pages  against 
annual  weeds,  will  destroy  many  seedlings.  In  root 
crops  as  well  as  in  garden  cultivation  the  regular  and 
thorough  hoeing  which  is  usual  suffices  to  keep  down 
the  weed. 

The  Perennial  or  Corn  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  arvensis 
L.)  is  a  much  more  troublesome  weed  than  the  species 
mentioned  above,  since  it  is  propagated  both  by  seeds 
and  by  a  creeping  rootstock.  The  stem  is  2  to  4  feet 
high,  but  little  if  at  all  branched,  and  tubular  and 
angular  ;  the  leaves  are  wavy  and  toothed,  almost 
spinous,  but  very  variable ;  the  heads  of  the  yellow 
flowers  are  somewhat  hairy,  and  i  to  2  inches  in  dia- 
meter. This  weed  is  spread  by  seed  as  in  the  case 
of  S.  oleraceits,  but  it  does  not  bloom  so  early,  not 
until  August  and  September,  when  the  annual  species 
is  scattering  its  seeds.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower,  and 
is  stated  to  be  one  of  the  most  aggressive  enemies 
of  the  Canadian  farmer. 

The  Corn  Sow  Thistle  occurs  on  all  soils,  and  often 
causes  great  loss.  It  must  not  only  be  prevented  from 
seeding,  but  the  creeping  rootstock  must  be  destroyed. 
Both  may  be  accomplished  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Creeping  Thistle  (p.  87),  but  rather  more  easily, 
S.  arvensis  appearing  to  be  less  resistant  to  tillage 
operations  than  Cnicus  arvensis. 

A  short  rotation,  with  the  free  use  of  the  hoe  in 
two  or  three  root  crops,  kills  it,  and  it  is  destroyed 
by  laying  down  the  field  to  grass  for  a  few  years. 

In  Canada  buckwheat  appears  to  be  a  useful  ally 
in  keeping  down  this  weed,  and  a  writer  has  lately 
described  the  plan  followed  in  order  to  keep  down  the 


102  COMMON    WEEDS 

pest.1  The  infested  land  is  "  disked,"  cultivated,  and 
harrowed  when  dry,  and  buckwheat  sown  afterwards 
in  June,  the  resulting  crop  tending  to  smother  the 
perennial  Sow  Thistle.  Seeding  is  prevented  ;  autumn 
ploughing  follows,  and  any  young  plants  (seedlings) 
are  prevented  from  sending  out  lateral  rootstocks. 
Following  this,  a  mangold,  turnip,  or  other  crop,  by 
which  the  growth  of  rootstocks  can  be  prevented,  is 
taken.  In  a  lucerne  crop  the  weed  is  prevented  from 
seeding  by  cutting  it  down  at  least  three  times  during 
summer. 

CONVOLVULACE^: 

Field  Bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis  L.),  known  also 
as  Small  Bindweed,  Bearbine  or  Bethbine,  is  a  beautiful 
but  very  harmful  perennial  weed,  occurring  in  corn- 
fields and  waste  places  on  almost  all  soils,  especially 
those  of  a  medium  or  sandy  nature.  The  stem  (Fig. 
29)  is  slender,  twining,  and  leafy,  the  leaves  being 
rather  variable,  but  always  more  or  less  arrow-head 
shaped  ;  the  large  handsome  and  fragrant  flowers  are 
solitary  or  2  to  3  together,  an  inch  across,  funnel-shaped, 
usually  pink  or  whitish-pink,  rarely  white  ;  the  roundish 
capsules  are  two-celled,  each  cell  containing  two  seeds. 
The  rootstock  is  slender  and  brittle,  and  creeps  ex- 
tensively and  deeply  underground. 

This  weed  trails  along  the  ground  over  and  among 
low-growing  crops,  robbing  them  of  food,  moisture, 
light  and  air,  or  climbs  among  corn  and  other  tall  crops, 
pulling  them  down,  preventing  the  ripening  of  corn, 
and  causing  a  reduced  yield.  It  hampers  harvesting 
operations,  and  in  unsettled  weather  may  cause  much 
loss  in  view  of  the  fact  that  stacking  cannot  take  place 
until  the  weed  is  sufficiently  dried  in  the  sheaf. 

1  Fanners'  Advocate,  October  7,  1909. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  103 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  29. — Field  Bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis  L.). 

Great  Bindweed  or  Bearbine  (Convolvulus  septum  L.) 
is  somewhat  similar  to  the  last  species,  but  the  climbing 
stems  are  much  longer,  frequently  over-topping  hedges. 


io4  COMMON    WEEDS 

The  creeping  rootstock  is  stout  and  fleshy  (Fig.  i,  b), 
the  leaves  are  3  to  5  inches  long,  arrow-shaped  or  heart- 
shaped,  with  lobes  at  the  base,  and  the  large  flowers, 
2  inches  in  diameter,  are  usually  white  and  solitary 
(Fig.  30).  The  flowers  open  in  fine  weather  from 
June  or  July  to  October,  chiefly  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  day ;  with  other  species  C.  septum  is  in  North 
America  aptly  named  "  Morning  Glory." 

This  Bindweed  or  Convolvulus  is  not  so  much  a  pest 
of  the  farm  as  of  the  garden,  and,  while  its  chaste 
beauty  is  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  "  wild  garden," 
it  is  most  harmful  in  hedges  and  among  garden  crops, 
among  which  it  climbs,  strangling  and  starving  them 
by  the  sheer  vigour  of  its  growth.  Bush  fruit  trees, 
peas,  broad  beans,  and  similar  crops  are  often  observed 
to  be  covered  with  Great  Bindweed,  and  in  1909  wre 
saw  a  hedge  which  was  almost  hidden,  and  likely  to  be 
much  damaged,  by  the  foliage  and  climbing  stems  of 
the  weed. 

The  rootstocks  of  these  two  pests  run  deeply  in  the 
soil,  spreading  in  all  directions,  and  breaking  easily, 
each  small  piece  soon  becoming  a  fresh  plant.  It  is 
only  by  the  exhaustion  or  removal  of  the  rootstocks 
that  the  weeds  can  be  eradicated,  and  this  necessitates 
much  care,  patience,  and  expense.  In  field  cultivation 
the  best  means  of  destroying  C.  arvensis  undoubtedly 
lie  in  short  rotations  with  extra  root  crops,  and  per- 
sistent thorough  hoeing  to  exhaust  the  root  system 
and  prevent  seeding.  During  tillage  operations,  with 
deep  ploughing  and  cultivating,  many  of  the  rootstocks 
can  be  collected  by  the  harrows  or  by  hand,  after  which 
they  should  be  burnt.  Small  patches  may  be  dug 
out  with  the  fork ;  no  small  pieces  should  be  left.  The 
more  the  rootstocks  can  be  turned  up  and  sun-dried  by 
fallowing  in  summer,  the  more  likely  will  the  pest  be 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  105 


FIG.  30.— Great  Bindweed  (Convolvulus  sepium  L.),  x  £. 

reduced.     Only  pure  seed  free  from  the  seeds  of  Bind- 
weed should  be  sown. 


106  COMMON    WEEDS 

In  regard  to  garden  cultivation,  although  the  Creep- 
ing Thistle  and  Couch  appear  to  be  killed  by  deep 
trenching,  followed  by  continued  good  cultivation  and 
the  free  use  of  the  hoe,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  all 
the  rootstocks  of  C.  septum  that  can  be  found  every 
time  the  garden  is  dug.  Between  whiles  thorough  and 
frequent  hoeing  should  be  practised,  and  if  the  weed 
happen  to  climb  a  gooseberry  bush  or  a  raspberry 
cane  it  should  be  promptly  cut  off  below  before  flower- 
ing is  accomplished  and  seeds  are  shed. 

BORAGINE.E 

Viper's  Bugloss  (Echium  vulgare  L.)  is  a  handsome 
annual  or  biennial,  sometimes  plentiful  on  arable  and 
waste  land,  more  especially  on  calcareous  and  light 
soils.  The  root  is  spindle  shaped  ;  the  stem  is  i  to  3 
feet  high,  erect,  stout,  and  leafy  ;  and  the  leaves  at  the 
base  narrow  and  stalked,  those  on  the  stem  sessile  and 
lanceolate  or  oblong.  The  flowers,  reddish  in  bud  and 
bright  blue  when  open  in  June  to  August,  are  f  inch 
long,  tubular  or  funnel-shaped,  with  five  rounded 
spreading  lobes  ;  they  are  in  compound  spikes,  the 
small  lateral  components  of  which  are  curved  and 
spring  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  whole  plant 
is  rough  and  bristly. 

In  Britain  this  plant  is  not  perhaps  usually  very 
troublesome,  but  it  is  a  "  noxious "  weed  for  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  It  is  easily  destroyed  by  good 
cultivation  and  by  hand  pulling. 

Bugloss  (Anchusa  arvensis  Bieb.)  is  a  rough,  bristly 
annual,  6  to  18  inches  high.  The  stem  is  simple  and 
angular,  the  lower  leaves  stalked  and  somewhat  lan- 
ceolate, while  the  upper  are  sessile,  narrow,  oblong, 
and  waved  and  toothed  ;  and  the  small  blue  flowers, 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  107 

opening  in  June  and  July,  are  in  terminal  curved 
clusters.  This  weed  occurs  chiefly  in  cornfields  and 
waste  places,  especially  on  light  soils.  Should  it  prove 
troublesome,  hoeing  and  hand  pulling  will  reduce  it,  as 
will  surface  cultivation  in  spring. 

Corn  Gromwell  (Lithospermum  arvense  L.),  or  Grey 
Millet,  is  a  small  annual  i  to  ij  feet  high,  with  a  short 
stem,  narrow,  somewhat  lanceolate  hairy  leaves,  and 
short  terminal  clusters  of  small  creamy-white  flowers, 
which  open  from  May  to  July.  L.  arvense  is  most  fre- 
quent in  cornfields  and  waste  places  ;  it  can  be  reduced 
by  the  use  of  hoed  crops,  surface  cultivation  in  spring, 
and  by  drilling  spring  corn  in  place  of  autumn  grain. 

Field  Forget-me-not  (Myosotis  arvensis  Hoffm.),  or 
Scorpion  Grass,  is  an  annual  or  biennial  weed  which 
grows  freely  on  arable  land.  It  is  6  to  18  inches  high, 
and  rough,  with  spreading  hairs  ;  the  lower  leaves  are 
small,  oblong  and  stalked,  and  the  upper  are  sessile  ; 
and  the  small,  pale  blue  flowers,  only  \  inch  in 
diameter,  are  on  long  slender  stalks  in  terminal  loose 
clusters.  The  flowers  may  be  found  from  June  to 
August.  This  is  perhaps  the  commonest  of  the  Forget- 
me-nots. 

Parti-coloured  Scorpion  Grass  (Myosotis  versicolor 
Reich.)  is  under  a  foot  high,  much  branched  and  leafy 
below,  with  linear-oblong  sessile  leaves  and  slender 
leafless  stalks.  It  bears  lengthened  clusters  of  minute 
flowers,  which  are  yellow  at  first  and  afterwards  pale 
blue.  It  is  an  annual,  and  flowering  occurs  from  April 
to  June.  It  is  found  on  arable  land  on  all  soils. 

The  seeds  of  the  Forget-me-not,  especially  those  of 
M.  arvensisj  occur  as  an  impurity  in  clover  and  grass 
seed  samples.  These  plants  may  be  eradicated  by  the 
growth  of  hoed  crops,  and  by  surface  cultivation  in 
the  spring  months. 


io8  COMMON    WEEDS 


SOLANACE;£ 

Black  or  Garden  Nightshade  (Solatium  nigrum  L.)  is 
often  very  plentiful  and  troublesome  in  gardens  which 
have  not  been  well  cared  for.  It  grows  rapidly  from 
seed  in  spring  and  early  summer  ;  the  earliest  plants 
are  in  bloom  by  July,  and  bear  fruit  before  August  ; 
flowering  is  prolonged  until  October.  Seedlings  con- 
tinue to  appear  during  the  summer  months.  The  plant 
is  an  annual,  and  the  only  work  necessary  in  regard  to 
its  destruction  is  to  hoe  out  all  seedlings  that  appear 
and  prevent  seeding  for  some  years,  when  the  weed 
will  disappear  or  be  reduced  so  much  that  good  garden- 
ing will  keep  it  in  abeyance.  Corners  and  shady  places 
must  not  be  neglected,  and  rows  of  peas,  runner  beans, 
and  potatoes  particularly  need  well  hoeing,  as  Black 
Nightshade  grows  well  in  shady  positions,  an  odd  plant 
here  and  there  becoming  very  bushy  and  producing 
many  seeds  if  it  escapes  observation.  Should  this  weed 
be  plentiful  on  the  farm  the  growth  of  well-hoed  root 
crops,  with  surface  cultivation  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  will  be  the  best  means  of  reducing  it.  (See 
also  p.  304.) 

PLANTAGINE^: 

Ribwort  Plantain  (Plantago  lanceolata  L.)  and  Broad- 
leaved  Plantain  (P.  major  L.)  (see  pp.  196-8)  are  both 
common  weeds  of  arable  land,  especially  the  latter. 
They  are  perhaps  not  usually  very  troublesome  on 
arable  land,  though  the  seedlings  of  cultivated  crops  are 
liable  to  be  destroyed  by  them,  and  in  young  "  seeds," 
or  clovers  and  grasses  intended  for  seed  crops,  Plan- 
tains are  often  very  harmful.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  seed  samples  are  free  from  the  seeds  of  Plantains, 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  109 

and  wherever  the  weeds  appear  they  should  be  spudded 
out.  Thorough  cultivation  of  root  crops  will  reduce 
them. 

SCROPHULARIACE^ 

Yellow  Toadflax  (Linaria  vulgaris  L.)  is  seldom  very 
harmful,  but  occurs  occasionally  in  arable  land  on 
damp  loams,  and  if  inclined  to  grow  strongly  may  be 
some  trouble,  as  it  not  only  produces  seeds,  but  is  a 
perennial  with  a  creeping  rootstock.  It  is  an  erect 
plant  i  to  2  feet  high,  with  narrow  leaves  i  to  3  inches 
long,  and  rather  large  tubular,  spurred,  yellow  flowers 
like  those  of  the  Snapdragon,  with  the  upper  and  lower 
lips  lobed.  The  flowers  are  in  dense  spike-like  racemes, 
and  appear  from  July  to  October.  Yellow  Toadflax  is 
in  many  localities  a  common  weed  by  roadsides,  and 
in  hedges  and  waste  places.  It  should  be  prevented 
from  seeding  by  cutting,  hoeing,  or  hand  pulling,  and 
the  creeping  rootstocks  should  be  removed  during 
tillage  operations. 

Corn  Speedwell  ( Veronica  agrestis  L.)  is  a  low,  spread- 
ing annual,  slightly  hairy,  with  very  small,  stalked,  and 
somewhat  heart-shaped  serrated  leaves  ;  its  small,  pale 
blue  flowers  are  borne  singly  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves, 
and  open  between  April  and  September. 

Ivy-leaved  Speedwell  (Veronica  hedercefolia  L.)  is  of  a 
similar  habit  and  general  appearance  to  the  last  species, 
but  rather  larger.  The  leaves  are  cordate,  with  five  to 
seven  large  toothed  lobes  ;  the  pale  blue  flowers  ap- 
pear between  March  and  August. 

Veronica  Buxbaumii  Ten.  is  a  common  colonist  in 
cornfields.  It  has  long  hairy  stems,  stalked  cordate- 
ovate  leaves,  and  large  handsome  blue  axillary  flowers. 

These  weeds,  associated  with  other  species  of  Speed- 
well, commonly  occur  in  arable  land,  especially  corn- 


no  COMMON    WEEDS 

fields,  crowding  round  the  lower  parts  of  the  stems  of  the 
cereals  and  other  crops.  The  seeds  of  Veronica  are 
found  as  impurities  in  clover  and  grass  seed  samples. 
Hoed  crops  and  surface  cultivation  of  corn  crops  in 
spring  are  perhaps  the  best  means  of  reducing  them  ; 
clean  seed  should  be  sown. 


LABIATE 

Corn  or  Field  Mint  (Mentha  arvensis  L.)  must  be 
classed  as,  in  some  districts,  one  of  the  worst  weeds 
of  arable  land.  It  is  i  to  2  feet  high,  with  square 
stems  bearing  opposite  branches  ;  the  leaves  are  ovate, 
more  or  less  serrate,  shortly  stalked,  and  opposite  one 
another  in  pairs  ;  the  small  lilac  labiate  flowers,  which 
open  in  August  and  September,  are  in  dense  whorls  or 
clusters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  whole  plant 
(Fig.  31)  is  downy  or  hairy,  has  a  strong  smell,  like 
garden  mint,  when  crushed,  and  is  rapidly  propagated 
by  extensively  creeping  rootstocks. 

This  weed  grows  freely  in  all  damp  soils,  and  is  too 
commonly  found  in  cornfields  and  arable  land  generally. 
It  must  be  combated  by  draining ;  by  deep  ploughing 
and  cultivation,  followed  by  harrowing  to  gather  the 
creeping  rootstocks,  which  should  be  burnt ;  by  the 
growth  of  two  fallow  crops — e.g.  potatoes  and  mangolds 
—in  succession,  in  order  to  give  increased  facilities  for 
tillage  operations  and  hoeing  ;  by  a  short  rotation 
generally  ;  by  smothering  crops  like  vetches,  or  a  heavy 
crop  of  maize  in  the  southern  counties ;  and  if  necessary 
by  paring  and  burning  the  surface  soil.  Fream  says  of 
this  pest,1  "  It  will  always  be  best  conquered  by  cor- 
recting those  defects  of  the  soil  which  encourage  its 
growth — by  draining  and  paring." 

1  Complete  Grazier,  p.  856. 


/ 


Photo,  1909.  /•  C.   Varty-Smith. 

FlG.  31. — Field  Mint  (Mentha  arvensis  L.). 


H2  COMMON    WEEDS 

Corn  Woundwort  (Stachys  arvensis  L.)  is  not  commonly 
harmful,  but  is  an  annual  found  in  cornfields  and  arable 
land,  and  it  may  occur  too  plentifully.  It  is  6  to  1 8 
inches  high,  branched  from  the  base,  somewhat  hairy, 
with  small,  nearly  heart-shaped  leaves  under  i  inch  long, 
the  lower  ones  being  stalked  and  the  upper  ones  sessile, 
and  small,  pale  pink  flowers,  four  to  six  in  a  whorl,  in 
terminal  spikes.  Flowering  continues  through  a  long 
period,  April  to  November,  and  this  necessitates  atten- 
tion for  some  months  when  the  weed  is  plentiful. 
Surface  cultivation  in  spring  and  early  summer,  hand 
pulling  later  in  corn  crops,  and  thorough  hoeing  of 
root  crops  should  be  all  that  is  necessary  to  cope  with 
this  weed. 

Hemp  Nettle  (Galeopsis  Tetrahit  L.)  is  sometimes 
plentiful  in  arable  land,  chiefly  in  cornfields,  on  sandy, 
calcareous,  and  loamy  soils.  It  is  an  annual  herb,  i  to 
3  feet  high,  stout  and  hairy,  especially  at  the  nodes, 
which  are  thickened.  The  stem  is  square,  the  leaves 
i  to  4  inches  long,  ovate-lanceolate  and  coarsely 
toothed,  and  on  longish  stalks  ;  the  tubular,  lipped 
flowers  are  about  i  inch  long,  and  usually  rosy-purple 
and  white,  but  variable.  The  flowers  open  between 
July  and  September.  Closely  allied  to  this  species  is 
G.  versicolor  Curt.,  with  yellow  flowers  having  a  purple 
spot  on  the  lower  lip. 

Red  Dead  Nettle  (Lamium  purpureum  L.)  occurs  on 
all  soils  on  cultivated  ground.  It  is  6  to  1 8  inches  high, 
with  a  square,  often  purplish  stem,  decumbent  below 
and  branched  from  the  base  ;  the  leaves  are  stalked 
and  more  or  less  heart-shaped  ;  and  the  flowers,  which 
may  be  found  from  April  to  October,  are  about  \  inch 
long,  purple  in  colour,  in  crowded  whorls  at  the 
top  of  the  stem.  Like  the  previous  species,  it  is  an 
annual. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  113 

Henbit  or  Henbit  Dead  Nettle  (Laniium  amplexi- 
caule  L.)  occurs  in  arable  land  and  waste  places, 
especially  on  sandy  soils.  It  is  a  small,  branched 
annual,  under  a  foot  high,  with  the  lower  leaves  roundish 
on  long  stalks,  the  upper  kidney-shaped  and  clasping 
the  stem — hence  the  specific  name  amplcxicaule.  The 
flowers,  which  open  from  May  to  August,  are  small, 
slender,  downy,  rosy  or  crimson,  and  in  rather  distant 
whorls. 

White  Dead  Nettle  (Lamium  album  L.)  is  closely 
related  to  the  foregoing  species,  but  the  leaves  are  all 
stalked,  the  whole  plant  is  more  or  less  hairy,  the 
flowers  large,  about  i  inch  long,  white,  and  in  whorls 
of  six  to  ten.  The  rootstock  is  branched  and  creeping. 
The  flowers  are  found  from  May  to  December.  This 
Dead  Nettle  is  a  common  weed  of  arable  land  and 
waste  places.  It  is  perennial. 

The  four  species  described  should  all  be  eradicated 
by  persistent  hoeing,  hand  pulling,  the  use  of  root 
crops,  and,  in  the  case  of  Z,.  album,  the  removal  and  de- 
struction of  the  creeping  rootstock.  Surface  cultivation 
will  destroy  large  numbers  of  the  seedlings. 

PRIMULACE^: 

Scarlet  Pimpernel  (Anagallis  arvensis  L.),  well  known 
as  the  Poor- Man's  Weather-glass,  from  the  habit  of  the 
scarlet  flowers  of  closing  in  dull  and  opening  in  fine 
weather,  is  a  widely  distributed  and  abundant  annual 
of  arable  land,  more  especially  on  sandy  and  calcareous 
loams.  The  small  branched  plant  has  stems  6  to  18 
inches  long,  smooth,  and  more  or  less  prostrate.  The 
leaves  are  small,  sessile,  nearly  oval,  and  dotted  beneath  ; 
the  round  scarlet  flowers,  opening  in  fine  weather 
between  May  and  October,  grow  from  the  axils  of 

H 


ii4  COMMON    WEEDS 

the  leaves  on  long  slender  stalks  ;  the  seed  capsule  is 
the  size  of  a  small  pea,  and  contains  many  triangular 
blackish  or  brownish  seeds.  The  ordinary  tillage  opera- 
tions are  sufficient  to  keep  this  little  weed  within  bounds 
on  the  farm  ;  if  very  plentiful,  surface  cultivation  and 
one  or  two  well-hoed  root  crops  will  reduce  it.  In 
gardens  the  free  use  of  the  hoe  will  suffice. 

POLYGONACE.E 

Persicaria,  Redshank  (Polygonum  Persicaria  L.)  is  a 
large,  freely-seeding  annual,  often  very  troublesome, 
both  in  gardens  and  among  cultivated  field  crops.  It 
occurs  on  most  soils,  especially  those  in  good  condition 
and  fairly  moist.  Redshank  (Fig.  32)  is  i  to  2  feet 
high,  smooth  and  shiny,  branched,  and  has  much 
swollen  nodes,  the  stem  being  reddish  above.  The 
leaves  are  lanceolate,  almost  sessile  on  the  stem,  and 
frequently  have  a  black  blotch  in  the  centre.  The  very 
small  reddish  or  white  flowers  are  in  dense  clusters  or 
spikes  \  to  i^  inch  long  (Fig.  32,  e),  and  appear  between 
July  and  October. 

In  garden  cultivation  this  weed  must  be  kept  under 
by  the  use  of  the  hoe,  and  by  hand  pulling  any  tall 
plants  which  may  escape  by  growing  amongst  potatoes 
and  similar  crops.  The  chief  thing  is  to  prevent 
seeding.  In  field  cultivation  well-hoed  root  crops, 
surface  cultivation  in  spring  and  early  summer,  com- 
bined with  hand  pulling  where  necessary,  will  quickly 
materially  reduce  Persicaria.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  seeds  are  not  introduced  in  dung  or  in  clover 
and  grass  seeds.  The  seeds  need  little  moisture  to 
enable  them  to  germinate.  Persicaria  is  a  nutritious 
plant,  and  has  been  given  to  horses  and  cattle  as  a 
green  food.  As  shown  at  page  8,  it  contains  a  good 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  115 


FIG.  32.— Persicaria  or  Redshank  (Polygonum  Persicaria  L.) ;  a.  young  seedling  ; 
t.  seedling  more  advanced  in  growth ;  c.  and  d.  flowering  plant ;  e.  raceme 
of  flowers.  All  x  about  \. 

proportion   of   nitrogen,  phosphoric    acid,    potash   and 
lime.     As  to  spraying,  see  p.  47. 

Knotgrass  (Polygonum  Aviculare  L.)  may  frequently 


n6  COMMON    WEEDS 

be  extremely  troublesome  among  both  corn  and  root 
crops  on  practically  all  soils,  while  its  seeds  are 
commonly  found  in  clover  and  grass  seed  samples. 
It  is  a  smooth,  prostrate  annual,  much  branched  from 
the  base,  the  branches  sometimes  reaching  3  feet  or 
so  in  length.  The  leaves  are  J  to  ij  inch  long,  more 
or  less  lanceolate  or  oval,  sessile  or  shortly  stalked, 
with  silvery,  chaffy  stipules  at  the  base.  Flowering 
continues  from  May  to  October,  the  flowers  being 
minute,  white,  greenish,  pink  or  crimson,  and  clustered 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  almost  the  whole  length  of 
the  reddish  stems. 

Knotgrass  or  Knotweed  (Fig.  33),  known  to  farmers 
also  as  Surface  Twitch,  Red  Robin,  or  Hogweed,  seeds 
abundantly,  and  on  some  of  the  light  sandy  soils  is 
often  found  in  almost  incredible  quantity,  while  it 
also  occurs  in  great  abundance  on  soils  highly  manured 
by  sheep.1  Unless  seeding  be  prevented  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  eradicate  the  weed.  Where  this  weed  is 
very  plentiful  a  short  rotation  should  be  adopted  for  a 
few  years,  more  frequent  root  or  hoed  crops  affording 
an  opportunity  to  prevent  seeding.  Two  fallow  crops 
in  succession  will  be  even  better,  and  late  turnips,  or 
maize  in  the  south,  will  especially  allow  of  surface 
cultivation  in  the  spring  months  to  encourage  the  seeds 
to  germinate  for  destruction  with  the  harrows.  Owing 
to  the  prostrate  habit  of  the  weed,  hand  pulling  in 
corn  is  difficult  after  the  month  of  May. 

Black  Bindweed  or  Climbing  Buckwheat  (Polygonum 
Convolvulus  L.)  is  a  most  mischievous  annual,  often 
confused  with  the  more  serious  pest  Field  Bindweed 
(Convolvulus  arvensis)  (see  p.  102).  The  two  weeds  are 
very  similar  in  habit,  the  species  at  present  under  con- 
sideration twining  round  the  stems  of  cereals  and  other 

i   Complete  Grazier. 


FIG.  33.  — Left :  Knotweed  (Polygonum  Aviculare  L.).     Right:  Black  Bindweed 
(P.  Convolvulus^,.}.     Both  x§. 


n8  COMMON    WEEDS 

plants,  dragging  them  down  and  choking  them  out. 
In  root  crops  also  Black  Bindweed  (Fig.  33)  may  be 
very  troublesome. 

The  slender  twining  angular  stems  are  i  to  4  feet 
long;  the  leaves  are  somewhat  heart-  or  arrow-shaped, 
i  to  4  inches  long,  and  shortly  stalked,  with  two  thin 
stipules  where  the  stalk  joins  the  stem ;  and  the  flowers, 
appearing  from  July  to  September,  are  very  small, 
greenish-white,  in  four-  to  ten-flowered  loose  terminal 
or  axillary  clusters,  each  flower  being  on  a  very  short 
slender  stalk,  and  giving  rise  to  a  rough,  black,  tri- 
angular fruit  or  "  seed."  The  flowers  are  quite  different 
from  those  of  Field  Bindweed,  and  the  roots  are  fibrous, 
not  creeping  as  in  the  latter  weed.  The  seeds  are  too 
frequently  found  in  samples  of  cereal  grain,  and  as 
many  of  them  ripen  long  before  harvest,  they  are  also 
plentifully  shed  in  the  field  and  reproduce  the  weed 
in  another  year.  "  The  seeds  have  considerable  value 
as  feed  for  stock,  for  which  reason  screenings  contain- 
ing these  and  other  weed  seeds  are  often  carried  back 
from  the  elevators  by  farmers  and  fed  without  grinding 
or  scalding,  which  is  a  dangerous  practice."  * 

Black  Bindweed  may  be  combated  in  several  ways  : 
(i)  By  ensuring  a  pure  seed  supply ;  (2)  by  the  surface 
cultivation  of  corn  crops  as  long  as  possible  in  spring  ; 
(3)  by  the  use  of  the  seed-catching  box  (p.  30)  on 
the  reaper  or  binder  at  harvest  time  in  order  to  destroy 
as  many  of  the  seeds  as  possible ;  (4)  by  harrowing 
the  stubble  immediately  after  harvest,  some  time  before 
ploughing,  in  order  to  encourage  the  seeds  to  germinate, 
when  the  young  seedlings  may  be  destroyed ;  (5)  by  a 
short  rotation,  the  hoeing  of  root  crops  destroying 
large  quantities  of  the  weed. 

Docks  (Rumex  sp.),  described  at  p.  201,  are  an  espe- 

1  Farm  Weeds,  Dept.  Agric.,  Ottawa. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  119 

cial  bane  of  the  farmer,  and  much  time  is  required  in 
many  districts  to  collect  and  burn  the  large  tap-roots 
which  are  turned  up  by  ploughing  and  deep  cultivation. 
The  plan  of  bodily  removing  the  weeds  during  the 
autumn  cleaning,  as  well  as  during  tillage  operations  in 
spring,  is  perhaps  the  best  that  can  be  carried  out.  In 
growing  corn  crops  "  docking,"  or  pulling  up  the  Docks 
by  hand  or  by  means  of  the  docking  iron,  must  be 
practised  as  long  and  as  late  as  practicable.  A  short 
rotation,  with  thorough  and  regular  hoeing  of  root 
crops,  will  materially  reduce  Docks,  for,  while  well 
grown  Docks  have  great  vitality,  seedlings  (Fig.  59)  are 
easily  destroyed  in  hot  sunny  weather  when  loosened 
from  the  soil.  Hoeing  is  especially  necessary  late  in 
the  year  when  seedlings  are  establishing  themselves 
before  winter  ;  and  Fream  remarks  that  il  were  the 
hoe  used  in  the  root  crops  later  in  the  year — in  the 
autumn — seedling  Docks  and  seedling  Couch,  which 
become  established  after  that  time,  would  have  little 
chance  of  causing  trouble." l  The  use  of  pure  seed, 
free  from  Dock  seed,  is  essential. 

Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella  L.),  described  at 
p.  204,  may  sometimes  be  troublesome  in  arable  land. 
In  such  a  case  thorough  tillage  in  hot  weather,%  with  the 
removal  of  the  creeping  roots  and  a  good  dressing  of 
lime  (2  or  3  tons  per  acre),  will  reduce  it.  Hoeing 
should  be  regularly  carried  out  to  prevent  seeding  and 
to  weaken  the  plants. 

CHENOPODIACE^: 

Goosefoot  (Chenopodium  album  L.),  also  called  Fat 
Hen,  Lamb's  Quarters,  or  Meld-weed,  and  in  Canada 
and  in  the  United  States  Pig- weed,  is  an  erect  branched 

1  Complete  Grazier. 


I  20 


COMMON    WEEDS 


annual  i  to  3  feet  or  more  high  (Fig.  34).  The 
leaves  vary  from  i  to  3  inches  in  length,  and  are 
somewhat  pointed,  toothed,  and  narrow,  with  long 
slender  stalks.  The  very  small  greenish  flowers  appear 
between  July  and  September,  and  are  borne  in  spiked 


FlG.  34. — Goosefoot,  Fat  Hen  (Chenopodium  album  L. ),  showing  young 
plant  (left),  and  flowering  stem  (right).     Both  x  \. 

clusters  at  the  end  of  the  branches  and  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves.  The  black  and  glossy  seeds  have  been 
likened  by  Percival  to  a  flattened  bun.  It  should  be 
observed  that  the  whole  plant  is  rather  light  green  or 
whitish  in  colour,  having  the  appearance  of  being 
powdered  with  a  white  or  pinkish  meal,  due  to  small 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 


121 


hairs  tipped  with  a  round  translucent  cell.      The  seed- 
lings also  are  of  a  silvery-green  hue  (Fig.  35). 

Goosefoot  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  grows  most  rapidly, 
and  attains  its  greatest  size  and  vigour  on  good,  well 
manured  soils,  although  it  grows  quite  freely  in  waste 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  35. — Seedlings  of  Goosefoot  (Chenopodium  album  L.). 

land.  In  gardens  it  is  sometimes  very  plentiful,  especi- 
ally among  potatoes  and  other  root  crops,  and  is  liable 
to  crowd  and  choke  out  all  kinds  of  crops  unless 
checked.  In  field  cultivation  root  crops  are  too  often 
overrun  by  this  weed.  An  abundance  of  seed  is  pro- 
duced, and  much  of  it  may  lie  dormant  in  the  soil 
and  germinate  at  unexpected  times,  while  the  seeds 


122  COMMON    WEEDS 

are  also  found   in  samples  of   many    species   of  clover 
and  grass  seeds. 

Spreading  Orache  (Atrip/ex  patula  L.)  is  a  variable 
mealy  annual,  occurring  on  all  soils,  and  generally 
found  in  similar  situations  to  the  last  species.  It  may 
be  only  6  inches  or  as  much  as  3  feet  high,  "  often  with 
the  central  branch  erect  and  the  rest  prostrate,  appear- 
ing as  if  they  had  been  bent  down  by  force  "  (Johns)  ; 
the  somewhat  triangular  leaves  have  two  lobes  at  the 
lower  angles,  or  are  entire  and  lanceolate  ;  the  small 
greenish  flowers  are  in  slender  spikes  of  separate 
clusters,  and  appear  from  June  to  October.  The  seeds 
are  very  variable  in  size,  the  larger  being  dull,  dark 
brown  and  compressed,  and  the  smaller  darker,  smooth 
and  shining. 

Halberd-leaved  Orache  (Atriplex  hastata  L.)  is  an 
annual  closely  resembling  A.  patula,  of  which  it  is  by 
some  botanists  considered  a  sub-species ;  the  lower 
leaves  are  more  halberd-shaped,  and,  as  in  the  last 
species,  there  are  larger  brown  rough  seeds  and 
others  smaller,  black  and  smooth. 

These  three  species,  together  with  several  others 
more  or  less  closely  resembling  them,  may  largely  be 
destroyed  in  corn  crops  by  surface  cultivation  in 
spring,  the  seedlings  being  easily  loosened  from  the 
soil  by  harrows.  Later,  any  plants  which  have  escaped 
observation  should  be  hand  pulled  before  flowering  and 
seeding  takes  place.  In  root  and  hoed  crops  generally 
frequent  and  vigorous  hoeing  in  hot  sunny  weather 
when  the  plants  are  small,  as  in  the  seedling  stage, 
will  easily  destroy  them.  Pure  farm  seeds  should 
always  be  used. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND 

EUPHORBIACE^ 


I23 


Several  species  of  Euphorbia  are  troublesome  either 
in  field  cultivation  or  in  kitchen  gardens.  All  are  small 
herbs  with  a  milky  juice. 


A 


Photo,  1909.  jj.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  36.— Petty  Spurge  (Euphorbia  Peplus  L.).     Seedling  and  full-grown  plant. 


124  COMMON    WEEDS 

Sun  Spurge  (Euphorbia  Helioscopia  L.)  occurs  chiefly 
in  cultivated  fields  on  sandy  and  clayey  loams.  It  is  a 
smooth  annual,  6  to  18  inches  high,  with  simple  or  three- 
branched  stem.  The  leaves  are  somewhat  oval,  i  to  2 
inches  long,  rounded  at  the  top  ;  the  small  flowers, 
the  male  and  female  separate,  are  in  golden-green, 
five-rayed  umbels,  which  are  often  repeatedly  forked. 
The  seed  capsules  are  three-lobed  and  three-seeded. 
Flowering  takes  place  from  June  to  October. 

Petty  Spurge  (E.  Peplus  L.)  is  a  small  annual,  often 
very  plentiful  in  gardens  or  in  field  cultivation  on 
loamy  soils.  This  species  (Fig.  36)  is  under  a  foot 
high,  smooth,  light  green,  with  broadly  ovate  stalked 
or  sessile  leaves,  and  repeatedly  forked  three-rayed 
umbels  of  small  greenish  flowers,  which  appear  from 
July  to  November. 

Caper  Spurge  (E.  Lathyris  L.),  described  at  p.  309, 
is  a  biennial  which  occurs  both  in  garden  and  field. 

Dwarf  Spurge  (E.  exigua  L.)  commonly  occurs  in 
cornfields.  It  is  an  annual  of  about  a  foot  high,  very 
much  branched  from  the  base,  with  narrow  leaves, 
and  three-  to  five-rayed  umbels  of  flowers  appearing 
from  June  to  October.  The  plant  is  very  variable. 

As  regards  eradication,  it  must  be  noted  that  all 
species  are  only  propagated  from  seeds,  being  annual  or 
biennial.  Surface  cultivation  in  spring  and  the  free 
use  of  the  hoe  will  in  general  keep  these  weeds  in 
check,  but  it  is  important  that  seeding  be  prevented. 

URTICACE.E 

The  Great  (Stinging)  Nettle  (Urtica  dioica  L.), 
dealt  with  more  fully  at  p.  207,  is  often  troublesome 
along  the  borders  of  arable  fields  and  in  gardens. 
It  may  best  be  destroyed  by  removing  the  extensively 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  125 

creeping  underground  stems  as  thoroughly  as  possible 
and  giving  a  liberal  dressing  of  salt. 

Small  (Stinging)  Nettle  (Urtica  urens  L.)  differs 
from  the  last  species  in  being  an  annual,  much  smaller, 
and  smooth  except  for  the  stinging  hairs.  The  leaves 
are  ovate-oblong  and  coarsely  serrated,  and  the  spikes 
of  flowers  are  J  to  i  inch  long.  This  is  a  common 
nettle,  and  should  be  attacked  by  regular  cutting  to 
prevent  seeding. 

LILTACE.E 

Crow  Garlic  or  Wild  Onion  (Allium  vineale  L.),  de- 
scribed at  p.  209  as  a  serious  pest  in  grass  land,  is  quite 
as  troublesome  in  arable-  land.  We  have  been  told 
of  a  stretch  of  country  near  Peterborough,  miles  in 
length,  on  which  a  variety  of  soils  are  badly  affected 
with  this  weed,  the  farmers  of  the  locality  having  tried 
all  tillage  operations  in  vain  in  their  efforts  to  subdue 
the  pest.  Repeated  and  costly  hoeing  appeared  to  be 
useless.  As  will  be  observed  at  p.  209,  the  weed 
spreads  with  great  rapidity. 

In  connection  with  the  eradication  of  this  pest,  the 
following  suggestions  may  be  made:  (i)  In  small 
areas  the  bulbs  may  be  dug  out  by  hand  as  fast  as 
they  appear — this  will  in  the  long  run  be  better  than 
a  great  extension  of  the  pest  ;  (2)  two  root  crops  in 
succession,  say  potatoes  and  mangolds,  with  both  deep 
and  shallow  ploughing  in  the  intervals,  will  give  little 
or  no  rest  for  the  Wild  Onion,  and  thorough  and 
repeated  hoeing  of  the  crops  should  go  far  to  reduce 
it ;  (3)  the  growth  of  a  heavy  crop  of  vetches  or  maize 
would  also  greatly  assist  in  checking  it  ;  (4)  a  heavy 
dressing  of  gas-lime  worked  into  the  land  should  be 
tried  ;  (5)  the  Woburn  experiments  *  showed  that  spray - 

1  Jour.  R.A.S.E.,  1900,  1901,  and  1902. 


126  COMMON    WEEDS 

ing  with  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  pure  carbolic  acid  is 
of  value,  and  that  Wild  Onion  on  arable  land  may  be 
destroyed,  or  at  least  largely  reduced  by  treatment  with 
such  a  solution,  without  injury  to  the  soil  for  a  subse- 
quent corn  crop.  Pure  carbolic  acid  (97  per  cent) 
can  be  purchased  at  2s.  to  2S.  6d.  per  gallon  according 
to  quantity  ordered,  and  if  100  gallons  of  the  solution 
be  necessary  per  acre  the  cost  for  material  would  be, 
say,  5  gallons  of  acid  at  2s.  3d.,  or  us.  3d. 

Before  treating  a  large  area  it  would  be  well  to 
experiment  on  half  an  acre,  using  a  Charlock  spraying 
machine  to  apply  the  liquid. 

Field  Garlic  (A Ilium  oleraceum  L.)  grows  about  a 
foot  high,  with  slender,  solid,  semicircular  or  nearly 
flat  leaves,  and  a  loose  head  of  pale  green  or  brownish- 
pink  flowers.  This  species  is  reproduced  in  the  same 
manner  as  A.  vineale,  but  is  not  usually  a  serious  pest, 
growing  chiefly  on  the  borders  of  fields.  Similar 
methods  to  those  suggested  for  Wild  Onion  will  prob- 
ably get  rid  of  it. 

GRAMINE^E 

Slender  or  Field  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  agrestis  L.),  also 
known  as  Black  Bent  or  Hungerweed,  is  closely  related 
to  the  valuable  Meadow  Foxtail  (A.  pratensis  L.),  but  is 
annual.  The  spike-like  panicle  is  frequently  purplish, 
more  slender,  not  softly  hairy  but  rough  to  the  touch, 
and  each  flowering  glume  bears  a  longish  bent  awn. 
This  grass  (Fig.  37)  is  chiefly  a  weed  of  arable  land, 
especially  cornfields  on  heavy  soils,  but  will  grow 
strongly  on  many  kinds  of  land.  Fream  says:  tl  Cases 
are  recorded  in  which  fields  of  wheat  have  been  quite 
destroyed  by  this  pest."  It  is  an  annual  which  flowers 
from  May  to  October,  ripening  its  seeds  chiefly  towards 
the  end  of  summer. 


Photo,  1909.  /.  C.  Varty-Smith. 

FlG.  37. — Slender  Foxtail  (Atopecurus  agrestis  L.). 


128  COMMON    WEEDS 

Owing  to  its  slender  growth,  its  long  period  of 
flowering,  and  the  fact  that  it  may  occur  freely  amongst 
wheat  and  other  corn  crops,  Slender  Foxtail  is  some- 
what difficult  to  cope  with.  Yet  much  may  be  done 
towards  its  eradication.  Should  a  slender  grass  be 
found  plentifully  in  a  corn  crop,  it  should,  even  before 
flowering,  be  submitted  for  examination  to  a  com- 
petent botanist,  and  if  found  to  be  Slender  Foxtail 
should  be  destroyed  by  hoeing  and  hand  pulling.  At 
harvest  time  many  seeds  are  shed  during  the  operation 
of  binding  or  reaping  ;  this  may  be  guarded  against 
to  some  extent  by  the  use  of  the  seed-catching  box 
referred  to  at  p.  30.  In  the  subsequent  root  crop 
thorough  cultivation  and  hoeing  will  destroy  many  of 
the  young  plants  which  appear  ;  this  is  doubtless  the 
chief  means  by  which  this  troublesome  weed  grass 
may  be  reduced.  As  the  seeds  of  Slender  Foxtail  not 
infrequently  occur  in  samples  of  grass  seeds,  the  sowing 
of  such  impure  seeds  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Bent  Grasses  (Agrostis  sp.,  especially  A.  slolonifera 
Koch,  and  A.  vulgaris  With.),  described  at  p.  217,  are 
often  extremely  abundant  in  arable  land.  The  latter 
species  is  in  some  districts  the  only  "  Twitch  "  which 
is  troublesome.  Where  these  extensively  creeping  and 
harmful  grasses  occur,  they  should  be  attacked  in  the 
manner  recommended  in  the  case  of  true  Couch  (p. 
132),  but  not  by  laying  land  down  to  pasture. 

Wild  Oat  Grass  or  Havers  (A vena  fatua  L.)  is  a 
troublesome  annual  weed  in  cornfields,  and  most 
noticeable  in  barley,  as  its  presence  among  oats  is  not 
readily  observed.  It  resembles  the  cultivated  oat  in 
general  appearance,  but  the  stem  is  smooth,  with  hairy 
nodes  or  joints,  and  the  spikelets,  i  inch  long,  contain 
two  to  three  flowers,  the  flowering  glume  of  each  bear- 
ing a  long,  stout,  bent  and  twisted  awn,  the  base  of 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  129 

the  awned  "  seed "  being  covered  with  reddish-brown 
hairs.  In  the  cultivated  oat  the  spikelet  contains  two 
or  three  flowers,  only  the  lower  of  which  is  awned,  and 
that  not  always  ;  when  present,  the  awn  is  straight. 

Closely  resembling  this  weed  is  the  Bristle-pointed 
Oat  (A.  strigosa  Schreb.),  the  spikelets  of  which  contain 
two  flowers  :  its  flowering  glume  is  more  deeply  divided 
at  the  apex,  the  two  segments  being  shortly  awned. 
Both  the  above  species  flower  from  June  to  August. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  only  pure  seed 
grain  be  sown,  and  seed  corn  from  a  field  in  which 
either  of  these  weeds  have  occurred  should  be  banned. 
Whenever  they  have  been  observed  the  succeeding 
root  crop  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the  seeds 
which  were  shed  before  the  corn  crop  was  harvested 
encouraged  to  germinate,  after  which  the  young  plants 
may  be  destroyed  before  they  produce  seed.  Pure 
seed  and  thorough  cultivation  of  root  crops  will  exter- 
minate these  weeds.  In  a  barley  crop  the  Wild  Oats 
may  be  removed  by  hand. 

Annual  Meadow  Grass  (Poa  annua  L.)  is  useful  as  a 
component  of  grass  land,  but  is  an  exceedingly  trouble- 
some and  ubiquitous  weed  on  arable  land,  in  gardens, 
and  on  gravel  paths.  This  little  grass  (Fig.  38)  is  an 
annual,  6  to  1 2  inches  high,  with  weak  spreading  stems, 
and  green  or  purplish  panicles,  i  to  3  inches  long,  of 
small,  almost  sessile  spikelets.  Seed  is  produced  abun- 
dantly from  April  to  September,  or  later.  The  plants 
are  often  so  small,  that  flowering  and  seeding  goes  on 
among  larger  plants  without  being  observed.  In  field 
cultivation,  surface  tillage  encourages  the  seeds  to  ger- 
minate, after  which  harrowing  -in  hot  weather  will  kill 
the  young  plants.  Hoeing  of  root  crops  usually  keeps 
the  weed  within  bounds.  In  gardens  the  continual  use 
of  the  hoe  should  be  practised,  and  care  must  be  taken 

I 


130 


COMMON    WEEDS 


to  cut  out  every  possible  plant — none  must  be  care- 
lessly omitted.     As  to  paths,  see  p.  349. 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  38. — Annual  Meadow  Grass  (Poa  annua  L.). 

Rye-like  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  secaltnus  L.)  is  an 
annual  or  biennial  weed  grass,  troublesome  in  leys  and 
corn  crops.  It  is  erect,  i  to  4  feet  high,  generally 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  131 

smooth,  with  a  spreading  branched  panicle  3  to  5  inches 
long,  bearing  oblong,  smooth  spikelets  }  to  }  inch  long, 
containing  five  to  ten  awned  flowers.  Flowering  and 
seeding  occur  in  June  to  July  or  August  ;  the  seeds  may 
lie  dormant  in  the  soil  for  several  years,  and  as  they 
require  considerable  moisture  to  enable  them  to  ger- 
minate, they  often  spring  up  unexpectedly  in  damp 
seasons.  The  seed  is  also  present  as  an  impurity  in 
cereal  and  grass  seed  samples  ;  care  should  therefore 
be  taken  to  sow  only  pure  seed. 

The  seeds  may  germinate  in  spring  or  autumn,  at 
which  times  an  opportunity  is  offered  to  destroy  the 
young  plants  by  ploughing  under,  or  by  harrowing 
them  out  should  dry,  hot  weather  follow. 

Smooth  Brome  Grass  (B.  racemosus  L.)  and  Field 
Brome  Grass  (B.  arvensis  L.)  may  similarly  be  trouble- 
some in  corn  crops. 

Bulbous  Oat  Grass  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum  Beauv., 
var.  bulbosum  Lindl.),  also  termed  Onion  Couch,  Knot 
Oat-grass  or  Pearl-grass,  is  a  variety  of  Tall  Oat  Grass 
met  with  locally  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It 
is  often  extremely  harmful  in  arable  land,  and  especi- 
ally in  cornfields.  The  inflorescence  is  a  panicle  6  to  12 
inches  long,  with  nearly  erect  roughish  branches,  and 
pale  shining  spikelets  about  the  size  and  appearance  of 
those  of  a  small  oat,  the  flowering  glume  bearing  a 
dark,  twisted,  bent  awn.  The  rootstock  creeps  a  little, 
and  is  tuberous  at  the  nodes,  several  "  bulbs,"  "  pearls," 
or  "  knots  "  occurring  together  like  large  beads  on  a 
string,  each  "  bulb  "  sufficing,  if  detached,  to  produce 
a  new  plant.  In  addition,  flowering  occurs  in  June 
and  July,  or  later,  and  the  tall  stems  growing  among 
corn  crops  readily  scatter  an  abundance  of  seed,  the 
sowing  of  which  it  is  impossible  wholly  to  prevent. 
As  the  "  seeds"  may  be  widely  scattered  at  harvest 


132  COMMON    WEEDS 

time,  the   precaution   may   be   taken   of   using   on  the 
binder  or  reaper  the  seed-catching  box  referred  to  at 

P-  30 

The  chief  means  of  reducing  this  pest,  however,  lies 
in  the  removal  or  destruction  of  the  bulb-like  roots. 
To  accomplish  this  great  care  must  be  taken,  as  the 
individual  "  bulbs  "  are  readily  separated  by  harrowing 
and  other  tillage  operations.  All  considered,  it  is  per- 
haps best,  before  a  corn  crop,  to  pick  out  the  weed  by 
hand  during  autumn  tillage  operations,  especial  pains 
being  taken  to  gather  single  "  bulbs "  with  the  rest. 
The  same  procedure  may  be  adopted,  if  practicable, 
before  sowing  spring  cereals,  and  with  even  greater 
certainty  in  the  case  of  root  crops.  A  short  rotation, 
with  extra  root  crops,  may  largely  reduce  this  weed, 
for  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil,  and  exposure  of  the 
"  bulbs  "  in  hot  weather,  or  during  alternate  frost  and 
thaw,  lead  to  the  destruction  of  much  of  the  pest. 
Continued  hoeing  of  root  crops  as  late  in  summer  and 
autumn  as  is  possible  "will  also  do  it  much  harm.  At 
every  possible  opportunity,  however,  whether  during 
tillage  operations  or  when  hand  hoeing  root  crops,  the 
"  bulbs  "  should  be  hand  picked.  Should  the  pest  be 
so  plentiful  as  to  overrun  a  field,  paring  and  burning 
of  the  surface  soil  may  in  the  long  run  prove  the  least 
troublesome  and  least  expensive  plan.  Odd  corners 
should  not  be  neglected,  or  seeding  may  lead  to  re- 
infestation  of  a  field. 

Couch  or  Twitch  (Triticum  repens  L.),  commonly 
termed  also  Squitch,  Scutch,  Quack,  or  Whickens,  is  a 
perennial  weed  grass  which  is  perhaps  in  most  parts 
of  Britain  the  worst  weed  of  arable  land.  It  seldom 
reaches  the  flowering  stage  in  arable  land,  except  in 
corn  crops,  but  is  recognisable  by  its  extensive  creeping 
rootstock  or  underground  stems  (Fig.  39),  which  bear 


FIG.  39.— Couch  Grass  (Triticum  repens  L.),  showing  extensive  creeping  root- 
stock  and  flowering  spike  (centre),  and  for  comparison  the  flowering  spike  of 
Perennial  Ryegrass  (Lolium  perenne  L. ).  All  x  f 


134  COMMON    WEEDS 

fibrous  roots  at  the  joints  or  "  nodes,"  from  which 
flowering  stems  and  leaves  are  sent  up.  Where  Couch  is 
left  undisturbed,  or  not  systematically  attacked,  it  may 
form  a  thick  mat  or  "couch"  of  these  underground 
stems,  which  are  white  in  colour,  and  of  the  thickness  of 
coarse  string.  Such  a  mat  of  so-called  "  roots"  may 
effectively  compete  with  the  sown  crop,  and  even  pre- 
vent more  than  a  small  yield  being  obtained.  The 
flowering  spikes  are  constructed  like  those  of  a  wheat 
ear,  but  the  spikelets  are  not  so  closely  grouped.  Unlike 
those  of  ryegrass,  the  spikelets  are  placed  flat  on  the 
stem,  and  not  sideways  (Fig.  39). 

Couch  may  be  combated  in  two  or  three  ways.  The 
laying  down  of  the  land  to  pasture  is  the  most  radical 
and  effective  cure  for  Couch ;  M< Alpine  and  Wright  say 
that  in  three  years  it  will  have  totally  disappeared  after 
this  treatment.1 

The  general  custom  on  the  farm  consists  in  frequent 
shallow  ploughing,  followed  by  the  use  of  cultivators, 
heavy  harrows,  and  chain  harrows,  in  hot  weather  and 
in  autumn,  in  order  to  bring  the  plants  bodily  to  the 
surface,  where  they  may  be  gathered  together  and 
burnt.  As  even  very  small  pieces  may  take  root  and 
form  new  centres  of  infestation,  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  collect  as  much  as  possible,  and  carry  none  on 
implements  to  neighbouring  fields.  When  the  land  is 
dry  a  heavy  roller  may  be  employed  to  crush  the  soil 
from  the  rhizomes.  On  heavy  land  this  process  of 
ploughing  and  cultivating  should  be  arrested  in  wet  or 
very  dry  weather,  or  more  harm  than  good  may  be  done, 
owing  to  the  repeated  breaking  of  the  creeping  stems. 

Where  Couch  or  Twitch  is  very  plentiful  thorough 
cleaning  may  usefully  be  followed  by  taking  two  root 
crops  in  succession,  when  the  regular  hoeing  which 

1   Trans.  H.  and  Agric.  Soc.,  1894. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  153 

these  should  receive  will  help  to  weaken  the  young 
shoots  of  Couch  which  may  appear.  Fream  suggests 
that  were  the  hoe  used  in  the  root  crops  in  the  autumn, 
seedling  Couch,  which  becomes  established  after  that 
time,  would  have  little  chance  of  causing  trouble. 

Bare  fallowing  may  in  some  cases  be  found  necessary. 
The  growth  of  heavy  crops  of  vetches,  rape,  or  maize 
has  a  good  effect  in  reducing  the  weed  by  cutting  off 
the  supply  of  light. 

In  this  connection  an  American  farmer  states l  that 
"  The  great  principle  to  be  kept  in  view  in  destroying 
Quack  Grass  is  shade.  Shade  during  the  dry  weather  of 
the  late  summer  and  early  fall  will  take  the  life  out  of  the 
roots  and  leave  them  to  decay  and  fertilise  the  soil.  .  .  . 
There  are  other  valuable  crops  that  do  it,  but  corn 
(maize)  is  the  one  which,  on  the  whole,  does  the  best 
work.  I  think  about  5  dollars  per  acre  extra  labour  on 
the  corn  (maize)  field  will  destroy  all  except  a  few  small 
tufts  of  the  Quack  in  one  season.  Then  to  make  sure, 
follow  with  corn  the  next  year  under  somewhat  less 
rigorous,  but  still  careful  cultivation,  and  the  eradication 
will  be  complete." 

Seeding  of  Couch  plants  in  hedgerows  should  be  pre- 
vented by  regular  trimming. 

In  garden  cultivation  many  advocate  that  Couch 
should  be  completely  forked  out  and  burnt  ;  but  if 
thorough  and  deep  trenching  be  practised,  and  the 
Couch  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  it  may  be 
effectively  smothered,  as  the  writer  has  proved.  The 
passage  from  The  Times,  quoted  at  p.  4,  adequately 
supports  this  statement. 

On  extensive  farm  lands  the  Couch  removed  from  the 
fields  need  not  be  burnt,  so  destroying  much  valuable 
organic  matter,  but  may  be  built  up  into  stacks  and 

1  E.  M.  Barton  in  The  Breeders'  Gazette,  July  21,  1909. 


136  COMMON    WEEDS 

mixed  with   a  proportion  of   lime  to   form   a   heap    of 
useful  compost. 

See    also   Agrostis    sp.    (p.    128),  and  Arrhenatherum 
avenaceum,  var.  bulbosum  (p.  131). 


EQUISETACE^: 

Horse-tail  (Equisetum  arvense  L.)  is  quite  as  trouble- 
some in  arable  as  in  grass  land  (see  p.  228).  In  arable 
land  it  must  be  attacked  by  deep  draining  if  necessary, 
followed  by  a  thorough  system  of  cultivation.  The 
regular  and  persistent  cutting  of  the  young  spore-bear- 
ing shoots  in  March  before  fructification  has  occurred, 
and  of  the  barren  green  stems  later,  will  have  some 
effect  in  reducing  it.  Deep  draining  and  two  heavily 
manured  root  crops,  followed  if  need  be  by  a  smother- 
ing crop  like  vetches  or  maize,  is  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  method  of  dealing  with  Horse-tail. 

Weeds  in  Orchards  on  Arable  Land. — The  question 
of  destroying  weeds  in  tilled  orchards  is  deserving  of 
further  consideration  in  particular  instances.  As  a 
general  principle  such  orchards  in  Britain  should  be 
regularly  weeded  ;  but  in  tropical  countries,  where  alter- 
nate influences  of  baking  sun  and  heavy  downpours  of 
rain  are  experienced,  the  economy  of  thorough  weeding 
has  been  questioned.1  Dr.  Watts  drew  attention  to  the 
good  effect  on  the  tilth  of  the  land  which  is  brought 
about  in  tropical  orchards  as  the  result  of  allowing  the 
weeds  to  grow  to  a  certain  height  and  then  cutting 
them  down,  leaving  them  as  a  surface  mulch.  It  may 
be  suggested  that  a  similar  practice  would  not  be  out  of 

1  Dr.  Francis  Watts,  "The  Treatment  of  Soils  in  Orchard  Cultivation  in 
the  Tropics  "  :  West  Indian  Bulletin,  vol.  ii.  p.  96.  Also  Agricultural  Neius, 
Barbados,  June  12,  1909. 


WEEDS    OF    ARABLE    LAND  137 

place  in  Great  Britain  in  certain  cases  in  which  the 
orchard  is  situated  on  a  slope  and  subjected  to  heavy 
rains  during  the  heat  of  summer.  The  growth  of  a  crop 
of  this  kind  beneath  the  trees  prevents  undue  "  wash- 
ing" of  the  soil  and  loss  of  plant  food,  while  it  adds 
steadily  to  the  amount  of  humus  present,  and  the  roots 
open  up  the  soil  to  atmospheric  influences.  There 
is  certainly  something  to  be  said  for  such  a  procedure 
as  that  here  referred  to,  but  we  think  the  orchardist 
can  do  better.  Instead  of  allowing  "  weeds  "  to  over- 
run his  ground — and  serious  pests  may  arise  unless 
care  be  exercised — he  may  usefully  sow  the  seeds  of 
rape,  lupins,  or  similar  quick-growing  crop,  which  will 
serve  quite  as  useful  a  purpose  as  the  weeds,  and  if  of  a 
leguminous  character,  will,  when  dug  or  ploughed  in, 
increase  the  stores  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

"  The  face  of  Nature  smiles  serenely  gay  ; 
And  even  the  motley  race  of  weeds  enhance 
Her  rural  charms :  Yet  let  them  not  be  spared  ; 
Still  as  they  rise,  unconquered,  let  the  hoe 
Or  ploughshare  crush  them.     In  your  fields  permit 
No  wild-flower  to  expand  its  teeming  bloom  : 
In  wood  and  wild,  there  let  them  bud  and  blow 
By  haunted  streamlet,  where  the  wandering  bee, 
Humming  from  cup  to  bell,  collects  their  sweets." 

—JAMES  GRAHAME,  British  Georgics,  1812. 


CHAPTER  V 

WEEDS   AND    THE    IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND 

IN  the  case  of  arable  land  almost  any  kind  of  method 
may  be  practised  for  the  eradication  of  weeds,  either  at 
the  time  of  ploughing,  and  during  the  subsequent  till- 
age operations,  or  when  the  land  is  carrying  a  crop. 
Where  grass  land  is  concerned,  however,  the  chief 
tillage  operations  are  barred,  and  other  methods  must 
be  resorted  to. 

Grass  land  is  commonly  termed  meadow  land  or  pasture 
land  according  as  it  is  chiefly  devoted  to  haymaking  or 
grazing,  although  meadow  land  may  be  grazed  to  some 
extent,  while  in  some  districts  the  fields  are  alternately 
grazed  and  reserved  for  hay.  In  general,  too,  any  grass 
land  which  has  existed  as  such  for  many  years  comes 
under  the  term  permanent  pasture. 

Composition  of  the  Herbage  of  Grass  Land 

The  composition  of  the  herbage  of  any  grass  land 
will  vary  to  a  considerable  extent,  according  as  to 
whether  it  be  meadow,  pasture,  or  hill  grazing  lands, 
and  also  according  to  locality,  variation  in  soil,  and 
aspect.  Alterations  in  the  herbage  also  arise  in  conse- 
quence of  good  or  bad  management,  and  the  mere 
grazing  with  one  or  other  of  the  various  classes  of  live 
stock  may  effect  considerable  alterations  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  herbage. 

138 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        139 

A  considerable  amount  of  investigation  has  been  made 
at  various  times  into  the  botanical  composition  of  the 
herbage  of  permanent  grass  land,  and  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  many  of  Britain's  best  pastures  con- 
tain a  considerable  proportion  of  so-called  weeds. 

In  an  investigation  conducted  some  twenty  years  ago,1 
the  late  Dr.  Fream  showed  that  the  species  of  plants  found 
growing  in  old  pastures  are  not  numerous.  The  plants 
to  which  he  refers  in  his  paper  number  31  grasses, 
some  of  them,  such  as  Holcus  lanatus,  being  weeds, 
8  leguminous  plants,  and  18  miscellaneous  species 
of  weeds  not  grasses  or  clovers.  In  his  subsequent 
paper 2  he  only  found  it  necessary  to  mention  2 1 
grasses,  5  leguminous  plants,  and  22  miscellaneous 
species  or  weeds.  In  the  complete  investigation,  which 
involved  the  examination  of  80  turves  taken  from 
pastures  in  28  English  counties,  6  Welsh  counties,  8 
Scotch  counties,  and  1 1  Irish  counties,  the  following 
plants  occurred  the  stated  number  of  times  in  the 
80  turves: — 

Bent  Grasses  (Agrostis  sp.)        .         .         .         .         .76  times. 

Yorkshire  Fog  (Holcus  lanatus]         .         .         .         .     63     „ 

Buttercups  {Ranunculus  sp.)      .         .         .         .         .     66     „ 

Narrow-leaved    Mouse-ear   Chickweed    (Cerastium 
triviale)  .........     49 

Common  Sorrel,  or  Sour  Dock  (Rwnex  Acetosd)      .     32 
Ribgrass,  Ribwort,  or  Plantain  (Plantago  lanceolatci)     25 

Hawkbits  (Leontodon  sp.) 19 

Self-heal  (Prunella  vulgaris] 14 

Daisy  (Bellis perennis) 11 

Yarrow  (Achillea  Millefolium}  .         .         .         .10 

Excluding  Yarrow,  which  under  certain  circumstances 
is  a  useful  plant,  the  remaining  species  include'  the 
really  significant  weeds  present  in  the  pastures,  others 

1  Jour.  R.A.S.E.,  1888,  pp.  415-447. 

2  Ibid.,  1890,  pp.  3S9-392- 


140  COMMON    WEEDS 

being  in  very  small  quantities  and  not  of  such  agri- 
cultural interest.  Many  other  weeds,  however,  were 
found  more  than  once.  The  complete  list  of  "  miscel- 
laneous "  species  mentioned,  comprising  "  weeds  "  apart 
from  grasses  and  leguminous  plants,  is  as  follows,  in 
alphabetical  order  : — 

Achillea  Millefolium  L.      .     .  Yarrow  or  Milfoil. 

Bellis perennis  L Daisy. 

Bunium  flexuosum  With.   .     .  Earth-nut. 

Cardamine  pratensis  L.       .     .  Cuckoo  Flower. 

Carduus  sp Thistles. 

Carex  sp Sedge. 

Cerastium  triviale  Link.     .     .  Narrow-leaved    Mouse-ear  Chick- 
weed. 

Leontodon  autumnalis  L.    .     .  Autumnal  Hawkbit. 

Leontodon  hispidus  L.    .     .     .  Rough  Hawkbit. 

Luzula  campestris  L.  Field  Woodrush. 

Plantago  lanceolata  L.  .  Ribgrass,  Ribwort,  or  Plantain. 

Potentilla  Anserina  L.  .     .     .  Silver-weed  or  Goose  Tongue. 

Prunella  vulgaris  L.  Self-heal. 

Ranunculus  acris  L Upright  Buttercup. 

Ranunculus  bulbosus  L.      .     .  Bulbous  Crowfoot  or  Buttercup. 

Ranunculus  repens  L.     .     .     .  Creeping  Crowfoot  or  Buttercup 

Rhinanthus  Crista-galli  L.      .  Yellow  Rattle. 

Rumex  Acetosa  L Common  Sorrel  or  Sour  Dock. 

Rutnex  crispus  L Curled  Dock. 

Sonchus  sp Sow  Thistle. 

Taraxacum  officinale  Web.     .  Dandelion. 

Veronica  Chamadrys  L.      .     .  Germander  Speedwell. 

The  extent  to  which  some  of  the  weeds  occurred  in 
the  pastures  was  also  ascertained  ;  it  was  found  that 
13  out  of  the  80  turves  were  composed  to  the  ex- 
tent of  50  per  cent  and  upwards  of  "weeds,"  the 
highest  being  89  per  cent,  and  the  average  of  the  13 
no  less  than  65  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  28 
contained  only  from  o  to  5  per  cent  of  "  miscel- 
laneous "  or  weed  herbage,  while  the  remainder 
(39)  contained  from  5  to  49  per  cent.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  noted  that  the  turves  were  growing  under 
somewhat  unnatural  conditions,  and  the  weeds  often 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        141 

tended  to  become  exaggerated,  especially  in  the  case  of 
Rumex  Acetosa.  In  one  case,  89  per  cent  of  the 
herbage  consisted  of  weeds,  but  Dr.  Fream  remarked, 
"  This  turf  showed  early  signs  of  an  abundant  growth 
of  Achillea  Millefolium,  and  at  length  it  became  smothered 
with  this  plant  to  an  extent  which  would  never  be 
possible  in  continuously  grazed  land."  In  several  cases 
upwards  of  70  per  cent  of  the  miscellaneous  herbage 
was  Rumex  Acetosa.  Yet  we  find  it  stated  that  5  acres 
of  a  pasture  in  North  Staffordshire,  from  which  the  turf 
examined  consisted  of  67  per  cent  "  miscellaneous " 
herbage,  the  balance  being  32  per  cent  grasses  and  i 
per  cent  leguminous,  would  "  fatten  four  shorthorn 
barreners  between  the  middle  of  May  and  the  beginning 
or  middle  of  August  in  a  fairly  good  season  ;  they  will 
afterwards  fatten,  say,  a  dozen  or  fifteen  wether  sheep." 
In  well  grazed  pastures,  it  appears,  the  bulky  lt  miscel- 
laneous "  herbage  is  kept  down,  and  "  under  the  normal 
treading  and  grazing  of  stock,  such  species  as  Achillea 
Millefoliuni)  Leontodon  sp.,  Rumex  Acetosa,  would  never 
make  the  display  which  characterised  several  of  the 
turfs." 

In  a  report  of  some  observations  and  experiments  on 
some  English  pastures1  Mr.  William  Carruthers  (Con- 
sulting Botanist  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society) 
refers  to  the  examination  of  some  of  the  pastures  from 
which  Dr.  Fream's  turves  were  cut,  and  although  he 
did  not  come  to  the  same  general  conclusions  as  Dr. 
Fream,  he  found  that  weeds  constituted  in  some  cases 
a  large  proportion  of  the  herbage.  For  example,  a 
Dorset  pasture  carried  22  per  cent  of  Ribgrass  (Plan- 
tago  lanceolata),  9  per  cent  of  Bugle  (Ajuga  reptans\  8 
per  cent  of  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris),  4  per  cent  of 

1  Jour.  R.A.S.E  ,  1890,  p.  95. 


142  COMMON    WEEDS 

Yarrow  (Achillea  Millefolium),  and  3  per  cent  of  Knap- 
weed (Centaurea  nigra).  In  another  case  a  Somerset 
pasture  carried  63  per  cent  of  Ribgrass  and  8  per  cent 
of  other  weeds.  Mr.  Carruthers  concluded  that  of  the 
fourteen  pastures  he  visited,  not  one  "  is  so  good  as  it 
might  easily  be  made.  The  extraordinary  abundance 
of  such  objectionable  grasses  as  Yorkshire  Fog  and 
Meadow  Barley-grass  in  some  of  the  pastures  is  sur- 
prising." He  further  says,  "  A  plant  of  Nature's 
sowing  on  his  (the  farmer's)  farm,  where  it  should  not 
be,  is  a  weed  to  be  eradicated.  ...  In  laying  down 
land  to  pasture,  as  in  sowing  fields  with  wheat  or  any 
other  crop,  we  must  try  to  surpass  Nature.  We  must 
bring  together  the  most  nutritious  perennial  plants 
which  will  supply  palatable  food  for  stock  as  far  as 
possible  all  the  year  round,  and  we  must  exclude  the 
weeds  and  worthless  grasses  which  we  have  found  too 
abundant  in  natural  pastures." 

A  later  investigation  into  the  composition  of  the 
herbage  of  several  types  of  pasture  and  meadow  land, 
especially  fine  old  pastures  in  the  Market  Harborough 
district  of  Leicester  and  Northampton,  has  been  made 
by  Mr.  S.  F.  Armstrong.  His  conclusions  are  of  con- 
siderable interest,  and  the  more  important  points 
deserve  notice  here.  They  are  as  follows  : l — 

1.  That  white  clover  and  ryegrass  form  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  herbage  of  the  best  grazing  lands — 
both  old  and  recent  in  the  English  Midlands — and  that 
the  next  most  abundant  species  on  these  pastures  are 
usually  crested  dogstail,  fiorin  (A.  stoloniferd],  and  rough- 
stalked  meadow  grass. 

2.  That  the  herbage  of  the  inferior  types  of  grass  land 
in  the  same  districts  consists  very  largely  of  bent  grass 

1  four.  Agric.  Sci.,  December  1907. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        143 

(A.  vulgaris)  and  various  weeds,  while  white  clover  and 
ryegrass   are  present  in  comparatively  small  quantities. 

3.  That  the  only  other  species  of  grasses  which  are 
occasionally  abundant  in  these  pastures  are  cocksfoot 
and  sheep's  fescue  in  the  better  fields,  Yorkshire  fog 
and  tufted  hair-grass  in  the  poorer  ones. 

4.  That  the  herbage  of  a  pasture  varies  botanically 
to  a  considerable  extent  during  a  season,  this  variation 
being,  however,  determined  very  largely  by  soil,  situa- 
tion, and  weather. 

5.  That    the    choicest    grazing    land    is    invariably 
associated  with  soil  rich  in  available  phosphates. 

6.  That   on   soils   suitable   for   permanent    pasture, 
inferiority  of   the  herbage    is   generally   due  either  to 
(i)  a  deficiency  of  available  phosphates,  or  (2)  to  their 
bad  mechanical  condition. 

7.  That   herbage  of   the  best  grazing   land  may  be 
twice   as   rich    in    nitrogen    and   phosphate    as  that  of 
a  poor  pasture,  and  that  this  large  difference  appears 
to  be  directly  determined  chiefly  by  the  proportion  of 
white  clover  present,  and  indirectly  by  the  percentage 
of  available  phosphates  in  the  soil. 

8.  That  from  the   early  part  of   June  onwards  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen  and  phosphate  in  the  herbage  of 
a  pasture  gradually  decreases,  while  the  proportion  of 
dry  matter  rapidly  increases. 

9.  That  the  quantity  of  herbage  available  per  acre 
for   grazing    depends   much    upon   the   density  of    the 
herbage,  and  that  no  plants  appear  to  be  more  capable  of 
producing  a  dense  growth  of  herbage  than  white  clover 
and  ryegrass,  providing  the  soil  is  suitable  for  them. 

10.  That  the  number  of  individual  plants  per  acre 
on  the  best   old  pastures,  and  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  thick,  close  turf,  is  probably  very  much 
less  than  is  usually  supposed. 


i44  COMMON    WEEDS 


The  Effect  of  Manures  on   Grass  Land 

In  laying  down  land  to  permanent  pasture  the  greatest 
possible  care  should  be  taken  to  ensure  a  clean  pas- 
ture to  start  with,  and  thereafter  much  care  should  be 
continued  with  a  view  so  to  manage  the  pasture  that 
"weeds" — worthless  grasses  and  other  plants — shall 
be  kept  down.  Nearly  150  years  ago  Stillingfleet 
wrote  :  "  If  a  farmer  wants  to  lay  down  his  land  to 
grass,  what  does  he  do  ?  He  either  takes  his  seeds 
indiscriminately  from  his  own  foul  hay-rick  or  sends  to 
his  neighbour  for  a  supply  of  a  mixture  of  all  sorts  of 
rubbish.  Arguments  in  support  of  ancient  customs  are 
never  wanted.  Some  say  that  if  you  manure  your 
ground  properly  good  grasses  will  come  of  themselves. 
So  they  will  ;  but  how  long  may  it  be,  and  why  be  at 
the  expense  of  sowing  what  you  must  afterwards  try  to 
kill  by  manuring,  as  is  the  case  with  seeds  from  the 
hay-loft."  Stillingfleet's  indictment  of  farmers  for  sow- 
ing bad  seed  is  fortunately  not  so  applicable  at  the 
present  day,  but  his  indication  of  the  effect  of  manuring 
is  still  true.  As  he  suggests,  however,  it  is  foolish  to 
commence  with  a  bad  weedy  pasture,  on  which  much 
labour  must  be  expended  to  get  it  into  good  condition. 

Where,  however,  a  permanent  grass  field  is  found  to 
be  in  a  weedy  condition,  much  may  usually  be  done  to 
remedy  matters  and  to  convert  it  into  a  creditable  field. 
Changes  in  manuring  have  a  very  great  effect  on  the 
percentage  composition  of  the  herbage,  and  this  has 
been  conclusively  demonstrated  by  experiment,  while 
many  practical  farmers  have  proved  it  frequently  for 
themselves. 

Rothamsted  Experiments. — In  the  Rothamsted  experi- 
ments upon  grass  land  mown  for  hay  every  year  since 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        145 

1856  and  not  grazed  since  1874,*  it  has  been  observed 
that  on  the  unmanured  plots  "  there  is  no  sign  of 
approaching  exhaustion  or  great  falling  off  in  crop 
from  year  to  year."  Yet  there  is  an  impoverishment 
which  "  is  more  to  be  seen  in  the  character  of  the 
herbage  than  in  the  gross  weight  of  the  produce. 
Weeds  of  all  descriptions  occupy  the  land,  and  the 
relative  proportion  they  bear  to  the  grasses  and 
clovers  has  increased  from  year  to  year  ;  of  late  years 
weeds  have  formed  nearly  one-half  of  the  herbage." 
The  most  prominent  species  among  the  weeds  were 
Burnet,  Hawkbit,  and  Black  Knapweed. 

Where  nitrate  of  soda  only  was  regularly  applied, 
there  appears  to  have  been  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
percentage  of  weeds  present,  weeds  forming  in  1905 
40  per  cent  of  the  herbage,  while  leguminous  plants 
were  practically  absent,  and  deep-rooting  grasses,  like 
meadow  foxtail  and  downy  oat-grass,  were  promi- 
nent. At  the  same  time,  there  was  a  great  increase  in 
the  yield  of  hay  compared  with  the  unmanured  plots. 

With  a  continual  application  of  ammonium  salts  alone, 
the  increase  in  crop,  compared  with  the  unmanured 
plots,  has  been  much  less  than  with  nitrate  of  soda.  In 
addition,  shallow-rooted  plants  have  been  encouraged 
until  "  the  plots  receiving  only  ammonium  salts  are 
almost  wholly  occupied  by  Sheep's  Fescue  and  Com- 
mon Bent."  On  one  plot  Sorrel  formed  nearly  15  per 
cent  of  the  whole  herbage  ;  and  on  this  plot  the  con- 
tinued action  of  the  ammonium  salts  was  so  harmful, 
that  the  application  was  discontinued  in  1897  "lest  the 
turf  should  be  entirely  killed." 

Three  plots  received  mineral  manures  only,  and  where 
a  supply  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  magnesia,  and  soda 
has  been  given  there  has  been  no  sign  of  declining  fer- 

1  A.  D.  Hall,  The  Book  of  the  Kothamsted  Experiments,  1905. 

K 


146  COMMON    WEEDS 

tility,  no  doubt  because  the  freely-growing  leguminous 
plants  (24  per  cent  of  the  herbage  on  the  average) 
have  provided  an  ample  supply  of  nitrogen.  There  is, 
however,  "  a  rather  large  proportion  of  Sorrel/'  and 
Yarrow  is  very  abundant. 

Where  potash  was  omitted  the  average  crop  was  less 
by  about  one-fourth,  and  little  more  than  half  of  that 
on  the  plot  to  which  potash  was  applied.  The  legu- 
minous plants  were  much  fewer  than  on  the  plot  last 
mentioned,  and  there  was  a  proportionate  increase  in 
weeds,  the  characteristic  species  being  the  Buttercup, 
Black  Knapweed,  Plantain,  and  Yarrow. 

When  superphosphate  only  was  continuously  applied 
the  result  has  been  disastrous,  and  Mr.  Hall  even  goes 
so  far  as  to  say  that  "  the  aspect  of  this  plot,  where  the 
most  abundant  grass  is  Quaking  Grass,  and  where 
weeds,  chiefly  Hawkbit,  Burnet,  and  Plantain,  are  un- 
usually prominent,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  land 
is  more  exhausted  here  than  on  the  unmanured  plot." 
Again,  a  nitrogenous  manure  alone  is  often  thought 
exhausting,  but  probably  the  phosphatic  manures  used 
singly  will  even  more  quickly  impoverish  the  soil. 

We  now  come  to  consider  the  effect  of  a  complete 
artificial  manure.  Where  the  complete  phosphate- 
potash-ammonium  manure  was  given,  on  two  plots  the 
average  yields  have  been  no  less  than  54  cwt.  (ammonium 
salts  =  86  Ib.  of  nitrogen)  and  65  cwt.  (ammonium 
salts  =129  Ib.  of  nitrogen)  respectively.  Yet  the  hay 
was  not  so  good  as  on  the  plot  receiving  a  complete 
mineral  manure,  i.e.  without  nitrogen  only,  because  in 
the  former  case  "  the  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  have 
so  stimulated  the  development  of  the  grasses  that  legu- 
minous plants  have  disappeared  entirely,  and  even  the 
weeds  are  crowded  out."  On  the  plot  receiving  the 
complete  artificial  manure  an  excess  of  the  nitrogenous 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        147 

manure  had  been  used.  The  character  of  the  hay 
upon  it  may  be  judged  when  it  is  observed  that  45  per 
cent  of  the  herbage  consisted  of  Yorkshire  Fog,  and 
52  per  cent  of  False  Oat  Grass  and  Meadow  Foxtail. 

With  a  phosphate-potash-nitrate  of  soda  manure  the 
result  has  been  better  than  with  the  phosphate-potash- 
ammonium  manure.  Not  only  were  the  deeper- rooted 
plants  encouraged,  but  the  herbage  was  more  varied, 
and  the  percentage  of  leguminous-  plants  was  higher. 
On  the  plot  to  which  nitrate  of  soda  =  86  Ib.  of  nitro- 
gen was  applied,  23  per  cent  of  the  herbage  consisted 
(1903)  of  Soft  Brome  Grass,  and  10  per  cent  of 
Beaked  Parsley. 

The  effect  of  lime  was  striking.  On  three  plots,  with 
varying  artificials,  there  was  a  considerable  increase  in 
crop  on  the  average  of  the  first  crops  for  three  years. 
There  was,  however,  "  a  great  increase  in  the  propor- 
tion of  leguminous  plants,"  the  proportion  on  the  three 
plots  rising  from  n,  22,  and  3,  to  20,  42,  and  35  per 
cent  respectively.  The  differences  in  the  action  of  the 
lime  were  found  to  be  due  to  the  previous  manuring 
of  the  respective  plots.  On  a  plot  which  had  only 
received  ammonium  salts,  and  the  herbage  of  which,  as 
already  stated,  contained  15  per  cent  of  Sorrel,  a  strip 
dressed  with  chalk  in  1883  and  1887  was  free  .from 
Sorrel.  All  grass  land  should  receive  an  occasional 
dressing  of  lime,  say  10  cwt.,  every  three  to  five 
years. 

In  changing  the  artificials  from  ammonium  salts  to 
minerals,  the  immediate  result*  was  a  great  diminution 
in  weeds  and  an  increase  in  grasses,  followed  by  a 
steady  increase  in  leguminous  plants  and  a  correspond- 
ing decrease  in  grasses. 

A  change  from  nitrate  of  soda  to  mineral  fertilisers 
had  a  similar  result ;  but  the  change  was  even  more 


148  COMMON    WEEDS 

rapid  than  in  the  last  case,  and  the  leguminous  plants 
attained  a  rather  larger  proportion. 

The  practical  conclusions  drawn  from  the  results  of 
the  Rothamsted  experiments  are  given  by  Mr.  Hall  as 
follows : — 

"  i.  It  is  better  to  lay  up  the  same  land  for  hay  each 
year,  grazing  the  aftermath  only,  and,  in  the  same  way, 
always  to  graze  other  land  rather  than  graze  and  hay 
in  alternate  years.  In  this  way  we  obtain  the  fullest 
development  of  those  grasses  and  clovers  which  are 
suited  to  haying  and  grazing  respectively. 

"  2.  For  the  same  reason  the  system  of  manuring 
once  adopted  should  be  varied  as  little  as  possible,  for 
even  manures  as  similar  as  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia  encourage  different  kinds  of  grasses. 

"  3.  On  poor  land  any  large  expenditure  on  manures 
will  be  wasted.  The  character  of  the  herbage  must  be 
slowly  reformed.  A  full  manuring  is  only  utilised 
when  there  are  plenty  of  strong  and  vigorous  grasses 
or  clovers  among  the  vegetation. 

"  4.  Land  which  is  growing  hay  requires  a  manure 
which  is  mainly  nitrogenous,  whilst  pasture  requires  a 
mineral  manuring. 

"5.  On  strong  loams  with  a  good  mixed  herbage 
a  dressing  of  10  to  15  tons  of  farmyard  manure  should 
be  given  every  fifth  year.  In  the  other  years  a  winter 
manuring  (January  or  February)  of  2  cwt.  per  acre  of 
superphosphate  (basic  slag  on  strong  clay  soils),  and 
3  cwt.  of  kainit,  with  ij  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda  when 
the  grass  begins  to  grow,  will  be  remunerative. 

"  6.  On  light  dry  soils,  either  sandy  or  chalky,  the 
nitrogenous  manures  are  the  most  important.  Dung 
and  cake  feeding  the  aftermath  will  best  build  up  a 
vigorous  herbage,  and  until  this  is  done  it  will  not  be 
wise  to  spend  much  money  on  artificial  manures ; 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        149 

i  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda,  i  cwt.  of  superphosphate,  and 
3  cwt.  of  kainit  being  about  the  best  proportion  in 
which  to  employ  them. 

"7.  On  all  old  grass  land  an  occasional  dressing  of 
ground  lime,  at  the  rate  of  half  a  ton  per  acre,  applied 
in  the  early  winter  (best  in  the  year  following  the  dung- 
ing), will  sweeten  the  herbage  and  utilise  the  reserves  of 
past  manuring." 

In  the  case  of  some  experiments  conducted  by 
Professor  Somerville  on  permanent  grass  land  in 
Cumberland,1  nitrate  of  soda  in  conjunction  with 
phosphate  had  a  markedly  repressing  influence  on 
species  of  Agrostis,  which  are  usually  numbered 
amongst  the  poorest  grasses.  Ribwort  was  also  re- 
duced, and  so  were  leguminous  plants  ;  but  Yorkshire 
Fog  was  greatly  increased.  Used  alone,  nitrate  of  soda 
tended  to  encourage  an  inferior  type  of  herbage,  and 
sulphate  of  ammonia  produced  more  Agrostis  and  Rib- 
wort. Superphosphate  was  found  to  reduce  the  percent- 
age of  Agrostis  and  Cocksfoot,  but  had  no  general  in- 
fluence on  other  plants.  Kainit  markedly  increased  the 
yield  of  leguminous  plants,  and  "  almost  as  markedly 
repressed  the  growth  of  Agrostis."  As  regards  lime, 
its  application  was  found  consistently  to  increase  the 
yield  of  Ribwort,  but  considerably  to  reduce  the  per- 
centage of  Agrostis  and  Yorkshire  Fog. 

These  experiments  have  been  discussed  at  length  on 
account  of  the  extreme  importance  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  the  manuring  of  grass  land  and  the  changes 
in  the  character  of  the  herbage  which  such  manuring 
brings  about. 

The  foregoing  remarks  conclusively  show  that  very 
much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  suppressing  weeds  in 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  vol.  vii.  No.  2. 


150  COMMON    WEEDS 

grass  land  by  means  of  judicious  manuring.  Indeed, 
Mr.  Martin  ].  Sutton  states  l  that  from  the  Rothamsted 
experiments  made  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  and  Sir  ].  H. 
Gilbert,  and  confirmed  by  his  own  experiments,  "  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  most  of  the  annual  and  not 
a  few  Of  the  perennial  weeds  can  be,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  eliminated  from  a  pasture  by  applications  of 
combined  mineral  and  ammoniacal  salts."  The  stronger 
grasses  are  encouraged  and  the  weeds  crowded  out. 

In  general,  farmyard  manure  should  be  spread  on 
the  meadows,  or  haying  land,  rather  than  on  the 
pastures,  which  do  not  require  nitrogen  to  the  same 
extent  owing  to  the  more  extensive  feeding  of  stock 
thereon.  Further,  a  judicious  use  of  phosphates  to 
encourage  clovers  is  especially  useful  on  most  heavy 
soils,  and  leguminous  plants  will  of  themselves  supply 
nitrogen  for  the  grasses. 

Some  weeds,  e.g.  Ragwort,  are  freely  eaten  down  in 
the  young  state  by  sheep,  and  cake  feeding  of  stock, 
even  to  a  moderate  extent,  will  prove  of  great  value  in 
improving  the  type  of  herbage,  and  the  treading  of  the 
stock  is  in  itself  of  much  advantage. 

Tall  weeds  like  Thistles  and  Rushes  should  be  regu- 
larly mown  or  cut  down  with  the  thistle  cutter,  and  a 
thorough  harrowing  before  manurial  treatment  is 
resorted  to  is  highly  beneficial. 

To  ensure  even  growth  of  good  herbage  it  is  essential 
that  all  grazing  land  should  be  eaten  bare  at  least  once 
a  year,  in  order  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  coarse 
tufts  of  unpalatable  grasses.  The  spreading  of  droppings 
should  be  thoroughly  done  as  soon  as  possible,  or  the 
development  of  ugly  patches  which  stock  refuse  to 
touch  will  certainly  occur  to  the  detriment  of  the 
pasture. 

1  Permanent  and  Temporary  Pastures,  1908,  p.  147. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        151 

Certain  weeds  have  already  been  specified  (p.  27) 
as  indicative  of  damp  soils,  and  where  such  weeds  are 
prevalent  it  will  often  be  found  that  draining  is  neces- 
sary before  they  can  be  eliminated.  On  damp,  low- 
lying  pastures  and  meadows  draining  is  almost  certain 
to  effect  an  improvement  in  the  herbage,  especially  in 
conjunction  with  liming  and  judicious  manuring. 

Another  matter  to  which  attention  may  be  directed 
at  this  point  is  that  many  weeds  are  practically  in- 
tolerant of  lime,  which  may  therefore  be  effectively 
used  against  them.  Among  such  weeds  may  be  men- 
tioned Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella),  Common  Sorrel 
(R.  Acelosa),  Spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis),  Corn  Marigold 
(Chrysanthemum  segetum),  Bracken  or  "  Fern "  (Pteris 
aquilind),  Heaths  and  Ling  (Erica  sp.  and  Calluna 
vulgaris),  and  Foxglove  (Digitalis  purpured).  Liming  is 
also  useful  in  reducing  Mosses,  Bent  Grasses  (Agrostis 
sp.),  Yorkshire  Fog  (Holcus  lanatus),  and  Wavy  Hair 
Grass  (Air a  flexuosd). 

The  weeds  of  grass  land  are  dealt  with  individually 
below. 

It  may  be  noted  at  the  outset  that  the  Natural  Orders 
contributing  the  largest  numbers  of  weeds  are  the 
Ranunculacece,  Cruciferce,  Caryophyllacece,  Rosacece,  Umbel- 
liferce,  and  Composite,  the  last  named  being  especially 
prolific  in  weeds  of  a  harmful  character.  It  is  con- 
venient to  deal  with  the  weeds  under  their  Natural 
Orders  :  the  latter  are  taken  consecutively. 

RANUNCULACE.E 

Traveller's  Joy  (Clematis  Vitalba  L.). — This  well-known 
climbing  plant  is  commonly  termed  Old  Man's  Beard, 
from  the  tufted  feathery  appearance  of  the  fruiting 
stage  ;  it  can  only  be  included  as  a  weed  because  of 


152  COMMON    WEEDS 

its  occurrence  in  hedges  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
hedge  proper.  It  appears  to  flourish  best  on  chalky 
soils  ;  the  sweet-scented,  greenish-white  flowers  appear 
in  July  and  August.  It  can  in  general  be  kept  in 
hand  by  cutting  it  out  regularly  when  the  hedges  are 
trimmed. 

Meadow  Rue  (Thalictrum  flavum  L.). — Where  this 
plant  occurs  plentifully  it  may  be  a  nuisance,  as  it  not 
only  bears  seeds,  but  is  extended  by  a  creeping  root- 
stock.  It  is  not  commonly  a  pest,  but  may  become 
troublesome  in  wet  meadows  and  damp  places  near 
ditches,  where  it  is  chiefly  found.  Meadow  Rue  grows 
2  to  4  feet  high,  has  pinnate  leaves,  and  pale  yellow 
flowers  crowded  in  pyramidal  umbels,  the  flowers 
appearing  in  July  and  August.  The  plant  is  perennial. 
It  should  be  exhausted  by  repeated  cutting,  and  seeding 
must  be  prevented  ;  at  the  same  time  the  damp  land  on 
which  it  occurs  should  if  possible  be  drained. 

Buttercups  (Ranunculus  sp.). — Four  species  of  Ranun- 
culus may  be  mentioned  as  occurring  freely  in  pastures 
and  meadows  :  Upright  Crowfoot  or  Acrid  Buttercup 
(R.  acris  L.),  Bulbous  Crowfoot  or  Buttercup  (R.  bul- 
bosus  L.),  Creeping  Crowfoot  or  Buttercup  (R.  repens  L.), 
and  Lesser  Celandine  or  Pile  wort  (R.  Ficaria  L.).  All 
have  yellow  flowers.  The  first  named  is  a  hairy 
perennial  without  runners,  with  straight  fibrous  root- 
stock,  cylindrical  flower  stalks,  and  well  opened  flowers 
|  inch  in  diameter.  It  flowers  from  April  to  September, 
and  occurs  on  nearly  all  soils. 

R.  bulbosus  (Fig.  40)  is  a  hairy  erect  perennial  with 
a  swollen  bulb-like  stem  and  no  runners,  and  flowers 
J  to  i  inch  in  diameter,  with  the  sepals  reflexed  so  as 
to  touch  the  stem.  Flowering  takes  place  in  May  to 
June — neither  so  early  nor  so  late  as  R.  acris.  This 
species  appears  to  favour  the  lighter  and  more  cal- 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND 


153 


careous  soils.  The  Bulbous  and  Upright  Crowfoots 
are  the  common  Buttercups  of  grass  land.  R.  repens 
(see  p.  50)  is  chiefly  a  pest  on  arable  land,  but  may 
occasionally  quite 
suppress  the  ordinary 
herbage  of  grass  land. 
It  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  fore- 
going by  its  rooting 
runners,  by  which  it 
rapidly  spreads  (Fig. 
8).  R.  Ficaria  differs 
essentially  from  the 
three  species  already 
mentioned,  in  which 
the  leaves  are  much 
lobed  and  segmented. 
In  Lesser  Celandine 
the  leaves  are  chiefly 
heart-shaped,  and 
largely  spring  from 
the  base  of  the  plant 
on  long  stalks.  The 
golden-yellow  star- 
like  flowers  are  about 
|  inch  across,  and  bear 
eight  to  twelve  petals 
instead  of  five,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  other 
three  species.  The 
plant  is  perennial,  and  its  flowers  appear  between  March 
and  May.  This  species  is  not  often  troublesome  in 
grass  land.  (See  also  p.  280.) 

There  is  a  tradition  that  Buttercups  impart  a  good 
colour  to  butter.     They  are,  however,  weeds,  and  out  of 


FIG.  40. — Bulbous  Buttercup  or  Crowfoot 
(Ranunculus  bulbosus  L. ),   xj 


154  COMMON    WEEDS 

place  in  pastures  and  meadows,  especially  so  in  land  that 
is  not  mown,  for  they  are  but  seldom  eaten  by  stock, 
and  are  of  an  acrid  or  poisonous  character  (see  p.  278) 
in  the  green  state.  The  milk  of  cows  that  eat  them  in  a 
fresh  state  becomes  tainted.  When  dried  and  included 
in  hay  they  are  freely  taken  and  quite  harmless.  The 
sowing  of  their  seeds  in  impure  grass  and  clover  seed 
mixtures  should  be  avoided,  and  the  tall  flowering 
stems  should  be  cut  down  with  the  mowing  machine 
before  seeding  takes  place.  An  attempt  should  be 
made  to  reduce  them  by  encouraging  good  grasses 
and  clovers  by  manurial  treatment,  and  on  heavy  land 
7  cwt.  per  acre  of  basic  slag  will  do  good  ;  on  lighter 
land  superphosphate  should  be  applied.  Where  R.  re- 
pens  occurs  it  should  be  dragged  out  with  harrows,  or  be 
dug  out  by  hand  if  the  patch  be  small.  In  the  case  of 
wide-spread  infestation  by  this  species  the  only  remedy 
is  to  plough  up,  clean  thoroughly,  and  re-sow  with  a 
pure  mixture  of  seeds. 

Mr.  Carruthers  not  long  since 1  referred  to  the 
presence  of  Buttercups  in  pastures,  remarking  that  all 
the  species  of  Ranunculus,  called  Buttercups  or  Spear- 
worts,  possess  acrid  properties,  and  have  not  the  slightest 
feeding  value.  "  They  are  usually  rejected  by  animals, 
but  young  stock  not  unfrequently  eat  them  to  their  injury. 
Some  farmers  like  to  see  Buttercups  in  a  field.  They 
consider  them  to  be  the  sign  of  a  good  pasture.  Butter- 
cups no  doubt  show  that  the  soil  is  fitted  to  grow  plants, 
but  every  Buttercup  is  a  distinct  injury  to  the  pasture. 
Being  rejected  by  the  stock,  they  flower  and  seed  in 
abundance.  Their  numerous  seeds  are  well  protected, 
and  remain  ready  to  germinate  under  favourable 
conditions.  Some  of  the  more  acrid  increase  by 
creeping  stems  that  run  above  the  ground  or  in  the 

1  Jour.  R.A.S.E.,  1906. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        155 

soil.  The  pasture  becomes  more  and  more  filled  with 
yellow  Buttercup,  and  it  loses  half  its  value  by  the 
presence  of  acrid  plants  which  cause  every  year  injury 
to,  if  not  the  death  of,  some  animals.  It  would  be 
better  and  more  profitable  where  land  is  burdened 
with  Buttercups  to  plough  it,  carefully  clean  it,  take  at 
least  one  root  crop  off  it,  and  then  sow  it  with  grasses 
and  clover  pure  in  quality  and  of  good  germination. 
Properly  sown  down  and  generously  treated,  a  good  feed- 
ing pasture  has  thus  been  secured  within  a  year  of  the 
sowing." 

Two  other  species  of  Buttercups,  Lesser  Spearwort 
(R.  Flammula  L.)  and  Celery-leaved  Crowfoot  (R.  scele- 
ratus  L.),  which  occur  in  ditches  and  wet  places,  may 
also  occur  in  wet  meadows,  and  on  account  of  their 
acrid,  poisonous  properties  should  be  removed.  (See 
p.  279.) 

Hellebores  (Helleborus  sp.),  which  sometimes  occur  in 
woods,  hedges,  and  pastures,  are  poisonous  plants,  and 
should  be  cut  down.  (See  p.  280.) 

Monkshood  (Aconitum  Napellus  L.)  may  also  occasion- 
ally be  found  in  grass  land  in  shady  places,  and  being 
poisonous,  should  be  eradicated.  (See  p.  276.) 

BERBERIDACE^E 

Barberry  (Berberis  vulgaris  L.). — The  reason  for 
including  this  shrub  as  a  weed  is  that,  occurring  in 
hedgerows  and  similar  places,  it  plays  a  part  in  the 
dissemination  of  Wheat  Rust  (Puccinia  graminis  Pers.), 
one  stage  in  the  life  history  of  which  is  passed  upon 
its  leaves.  The  Barberry  is  a  shrub  which  attains 
4  to  6  feet  in  height,  bearing  alternate  leaves  i  to 
ij  inch  in  length,  and  forked  spines  ;  the  small  yellow 
flowers  are  borne  in  drooping  clusters,  and  appear 


156  COMMON    WEEDS 

in  May  and  June,  giving  rise  later  to  orange-red  oblong 
berries  \  inch  in  length.  In  wheat-growing  districts  it 
should  be  cut  down  and  burnt. 


CRUCIFER^: 

Lady's  Smock  (Cardamine  pratensis  L.),  known  also 
as  Cuckoo  Flower  or  Bitter  Cress,  is  a  common,  well- 
known  flower  of  damp  meadows  and  pastures.  It  is 
about  a  foot  high,  with  pinnate  leaves  ;  the  conspicuous 
flowers  are  about  J  inch  across,  lilac  in  colour,  and,  like 
other  crucifers,  the  four  petals  are  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  cross.  The  flowers  appear  in  April  to  June. 
Perennial. 

Should  this  plant  occur  in  damp  land  in  large 
quantity,  drainage  combined  with  judicious  manuring 
to  encourage  better  herbage  will  diminish  it. 

CARYOPHYLLACE^ 

Ragged  Robin  (Lychnis  Flos-cuculi  L.)  is  a  well-known 
perennial,  which  flowers  in  May  and  June,  the  rosy 
blossoms  with  deeply-cut  petals  being  especially  hand- 
some. It  occurs  freely  in  moist  pastures  and  hedgerows 
and  by  ditches. 

Bladder  Campion  (Silene  inflata  Sm.),  Red  Campion 
(Lychnis  diurna  Sibth.),  and  White  Campion  (Lychnis 
vespertina  Sibth.)  (see  p.  69)  also  occur  in  meadows. 

All  these  plants  may  be  kept  within  bounds  by 
regular  cutting,  sound  treatment  of  the  meadow  land, 
and  keeping  hedgerows  and  ditches  properly  trimmed. 

Mouse-ear  Chickweed  (Cerastium  triviale  Link.)  is  a 
frequent  and  prolific  weed  of  meadows  and  pastures, 
and  may  occur  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  It  has  been 
already  stated  (p.  69)  that  this  weed  was  found  forty- 


FIG.  41. — Mouse-ear  Chickweed  (Cerastium  triviale  Link.), 
with  flower  and  seed-vessel  enlarged. 


158  COMMON    WEEDS 

nine  times  in  eighty  turfs  in  Dr.  Fream's  investigations. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  plenty  on  grass  land  generally, 
perhaps  more  especially  upon  that  which  has  been 
starved  and  upon  poor  wastes  and  commons.  It  is 
usually  perennial,  and  is  a  slender,  straggly,  procumbent, 
downy  plant  (Fig.  41),  with  small  oblong-lanceolate 
leaves  placed  opposite  each  other  in  pairs  on  the  stem  ; 
its  clusters  of  small  white  flowers  are  arranged  on  short 
stalks,  and  are  open  from  April  to  August.  This  weed 
frequently  occurs  in  patches,  which  should  be  mown 
close  with  the  scythe  before  seeding  takes  place,  and 
better  grasses  and  clovers  should  be  encouraged  by 
manuring.  The  seeds  of  Mouse-ear  Chickweed  occur 
in  samples  of  wrhite  clover  and  alsike  seed,  and  in 
samples  of  many  grass  seeds. 

MALVACEAE 

The  Common  Mallow  (Malva  sylvestris  L.),  which  in 
some  places  occurs  freely  on  waste  spots  of  ground, 
damp  meadows,  and  hedgerows,  should  be  kept  within 
bounds  by  the  use  of  scythe  and  hook.  It  is  a  robust 
hairy  plant  of  2  to  3  feet  in  height,  with  showy  lilac 
flowers  of  over  i  inch  in  diameter,  opening  between 
June  and  September.  The  soft  green,  unripe  seed- 
vessels  are  well  known  among  country  children  as 
11  cheeses"  or  "  bread  and  cheese."  They  are  not 
unwholesome.  The  plant  is  biennial  or  perennial. 

LINAGES 

Bitter  or  Purging  Flax  (Linum  catharticum  L.)  is  a 
small  annual  plant  occurring  in  pastures  and  meadows, 
especially  those  of  a  light  calcareous  nature.  It  is 
smooth  and  shiny,  from  2  to  12  inches  in  height,  very 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        159 

slender,  with  small  obovate  or  lanceolate  leaves  opposite 
each  other  in  pairs,  and  small  white  flowers.  As  the 
plant  is  annual,  the  first  object  should  be  to  prevent 
seeding  by  cutting  it  early  in  the  flowering  stage.  Such 
a  plan  will,  if  repeated,  have  the  effect  of  reducing  the 
weed. 

GERANIACE^ 

Meadow  Crane's-bill  (Geranium  pratense  L.)  and 
Dove's-foot  Crane's-bill  (G.  molle  L.)  occur  in  grass 
land,  the  former  chiefly  on  the  moister  class  of  meadow 
or  pasture,  while  the  latter  is  principally  harmful  on 
arable  land. 

Cut-leaved  Crane's-bill  (G.  dissectum  L.)  and  Herb 
Robert  (G.  Robertianum  L.)  grow  freely  along  hedge- 
rows and  waste  ground.  (See  p.  77.) 

The  Meadow  Crane's-bill  can  at  once  be  distinguished 
from  the  other  three  species  by  its  very  large  purplish- 
blue  flowers,  which  are  i  to  ij  inch  across,  the  other 
species  each  having  flowers  of  no  more  than  |  inch 
across.  The  species  is  a  perennial,  attaining  sometimes 
3  to  4  feet  in  height  ;  it  flowers  from  June  to  August. 
As  in  other  species,  the  fruit  is  prolonged  into  a  long 
"  beak,"  resembling  the  bill  of  a  crane.  Where  this 
plant  inclines  to  be  plentiful  it  should  be  regularly  cut 
down  before  flowering. 

LEGUMINOS^E 

Dyer's  Green-weed  (Genista  tinctoria  L.)  is  in  some 
cases  a  serious  trouble  in  grass  land,  especially  clay 
pastures.  It  is  a  perennial  plant  of  i  to  2  feet  in  height, 
branched  and  shrubby,  with  smooth  spineless  branches, 
entire  ovate-lanceolate  leaves  |  to  i  inch  long,  and,  for 
the  size  of  the  plant,  rather  large  yellow  flowers,  some- 


i6o 


COMMON    WEEDS 


FlG.  42. — Dyer's  Green-weed  (Genista  tinctoria  L. \ 
nat.  size. 


butter  and  cheese  made  from  it."  l 


what  like  those  of 
Broom  or  Gorse, 
in  long  racemes. 
The  flowers  ap- 
pear in  July  to 
December  (Fig. 
42).  It  was  for- 
merly used  as  a 
yellow  dye,  and 
it  is  likely  that  it 
was  the  planta 
genista  which 
formed  the  badge 
of  the  Planta- 
genets. 

The  weed  has 
been  recorded  as 
causing  much 
loss  in  the  Mal- 
vern  district,  and 
we  know  a  farm 
in  Surrey  where 
it  has  proved  a 
nuisance.  Stock 
do  not  usually 
appear  to  touch 
it,  but  "  cows  will 
sometimes  eat 
this  plant,  and  it 
communicates  an 
unpleasant  bitter- 
ness to  their  milk, 
and  even  to  the 
Knapp 2  states  that 


1  Johnson  and  Sowerby,  Useful  Plants  of  Great  Britain,  p.  69. 
'2  Journal  of  'a  Naturalist,  1829,  p.  76. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        161 

this  plant  "  is  seldom  eaten  by  cattle  except  in  cases 
of  great  necessity,  and  remains  untouched  if  other  food 
be  obtainable."  It  should  be  regularly  cut  to  pre- 
vent seeding,  or  it  may  spread  very  rapidly.  A  good 
dressing  of  baste  slag,  6  to  10  cwt.  per  acre,  has  been 
found  beneficial  in  checking  it. 

Gorse,  Furze,  or  Whin  (Ulex  europceus  L.)  is  a  well 
known  and  handsome  spiny  shrub  or  bush  attaining 
several  feet  in  height,  and  occurring  freely  on  poor 
stony  moorland,  commons,  and  poor  pastures,  in  the 
latter  position  frequently  detracting  greatly  from  the 
value  of  the  grass. 

Another  species  of  Gorse,  U.  nanus  Forster,  occurs 
on  heaths,  commons,  and  stony  pastures  from  Ayr 
southwards,  and  also  in  Ireland.  It  is  much  smaller 
than  the  last  species,  being  only  i  to  3  feet  high  ;  and 
the  flowers,  which  are  more  deeply  orange  in  colour, 
appear  from  August  to  November.  A  sub-species, 
U.  Gallii  Planchon,  grows  somewhat  larger  and  more 
erect  than  U.  nanus.  It  occurs  in  similar  positions, 
especially  in  the  west  from  Ayr  to  Somerset,  and  in 
Ireland. 

In  order  to  eradicate  Gorse  the  smaller  plants  may 
be  grubbed  out,  and  the  larger  ones  burnt  in  dry 
weather,  the  roots  being  subsequently  grubbed  out, 
after  which  the  bare  patches  should  be  harrowed  over, 
sown  with  a  suitable  seed  mixture,  and  judiciously 
manured  later.  All  young  plants  which  may  appear 
should  be  removed  at  once.  Gorse  is  frequently  grown 
as  a  fodder  crop  on  poor  land  in  certain  districts. 

Broom  (Cytisus  scoparius  Link.)  may  also  be  a  nuisance 
on  poor  stony  or  sandy  pastures  and  commons,  and 
must  be  dealt  with  in  a  similar  manner  to  Gorse.  It 
has  no  spines ;  the  branches  are  long,  slender,  and 
erect,  the  leaves  small  and  scattered,  and  the  yellow 

L 


162 


COMMON    WEEDS 


Photo,  1909.  /•  C.  Varty-Smith. 

FlG.  43. — Rest  Harrow  (Ononis  spinosa  L.). 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        163 

flowers  carried  on  the  branches  on  short  stalks.  Flower- 
ing takes  place  in  May  and  June. 

Rest  Harrow  or  Wild  Liquorice  (Ononis  spinosa  L.) 
is  in  some  localities  a  very  harmful  pest  in  pastures  on 
poor  heavy  land,  and  some  forms  of  it  also  on  dry, 
sandy,  and  gravelly  soils.  Rest  Harrow  is  a  viscid, 
hairy  perennial,  with  erect  shrubby  stems  i  to  2  feet 
high,  narrow,  oblong,  toothed  leaflets,  and  handsome 
rosy-pink,  vetch-like  flowers,  appearing  singly  in  the 
axil  of  the  leaves  or  in  leafy  racemes  (Fig.  43).  The 
plant  is  generally  spinous,  and  among  hay  old  dry 
plants  have  been  mistaken  for  seedling  gooseberries. 
A  form  or  sub-species,  O.  repens  L.,  possesses  runners, 
is  usually  spineless,  and  has  a  strong,  disagreeable  scent. 
Rest  Harrow  is  a  pest  in  pastures,  and  is  indicative  of 
poor  soils. 

This  weed  must  be  attacked  if  in  quantity  by  manur- 
ing, regular  cutting,  and  close  depasturing  with  stock  ; 
in  bad  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  plough  up  the 
pasture,  give  a  thorough  cleaning  and  manuring,  and 
again  lay  down  to  grass  in  the  usual  manner. 

ROSACES; 

Meadow-sweet,  Queen  of  the  Meadow  (Spircea 
Ulmaria  L.)  is  a  tall,  handsome  perennial,  attaining  to 
4  feet  in  height  ;  it  sometimes  occurs  very  freely  in 
meadow  land  and  damp  places,  such  as  water  meadows. 
Meadow-sweet  is  herbaceous,  with  large  leaves  upwards 
of  a  foot  long  from  the  base  of  the  plant,  interruptedly 
pinnate,  with  serrate  edges,  and  white  and  downy  be- 
neath. The  flowers,  which  appear  between  June  and 
August,  are  collected  in  large  compound  cymes  2  to  6 
inches  in  diameter  ;  each  single  flower  is  small,  about 
J  inch  in  diameter,  white  or  nearly  so,  and  sweetly 


164  COMMON    WEEDS 

fragrant.  Spircea  Ulmaria  is  a  favourite  plant,  and  aptly 
named  Queen  of  the  Meadow. 

The  only  plan  of  getting  rid  of  an  excessive  quantity 
of  this  tall,  stout  plant  is  to  cut  it  regularly,  and  by 
drainage,  liming,  and  manurial  treatment  encourage 
more  useful  herbage,  when  the  weed  would  probably 
be  much  reduced  or  entirely  disappear. 

Blackberry,  Bramble  (Rubus  frudicosus  L.). — This 
rapidly  growing  plant  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 
well  known  ramblers  of  our  hedges,  commons,  and 
waste  lands,  and  needs  no  description  here.  It  is  an 
extremely  variable  plant,  and  different  forms  of  it  grow 
freely  on  all  soils ;  these  are  troublesome  in  hedges, 
extending  out  into  the  fields  and  occupying  ground 
which  should  be  devoted  to  grass  or  a  cultivated  crop. 
In  some  parts  of  Australasia  the  Blackberry  is  a 
scheduled  weed,  and  its  destruction  or  restriction 
within  bounds  is  enforced.  The  Bramble  can  only 
be  kept  down  by  means  of  grubbing  it  out  by  the  roots 
or  by  repeated  cutting. 

Wood  Avens  or  Herb  Benet  (Geum  urhanum  L.)  is 
a  pretty  plant,  common  in  hedgerows,  on  sides  of 
ditches  and  borders  of  fields,  and  not  usually  much 
trouble.  It  is  a  soft,  hairy  perennial,  i  to  3  feet  high, 
with  bright  yellow  flowers  which  appear  in  June  to 
August.  The  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  stem  are  pinnate, 
those  above  being  small,  oblong,  and  sessile.  The  heads 
of  fruits  bear  hooked  awns  which  enable  them  to  adhere 
to  passing  animals,  and  so  ensure  distribution.  This 
weed  is  generally  cut  down  and  reduced  when  hedges 
and  ditches  are  trimmed. 

Creeping  Cinquefoil  (Potentilla  reptans  L.)  (see  p.  79) 
may  also  occur  in  meadows,  in  which  position  it  can 
only  be  combated  by  regular  cutting  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  better  herbage. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        165 

Tormentil  (Potenlilla  Tormentilla  Sibth.)  is  a  perennial 
which  occurs  in  pastures  and  meadows,  especially  on 
poor,  dry  soils.  It  is  a  slightly  hairy  plant,  from 
6  inches  to  i  foot  high,  with  solitary  yellow  flowers 
about  \  inch  in  diameter,  bearing  usually  only  four 
petals.  This  plant  is  checked  if  a  plentiful  and  close 
bottom  herbage  is  produced. 

Lady's  Mantle  (Achemilla  vulgaris  L.)  is  occasionally 
too  common  in  moist  pastures  and  meadows,  and  may 
occur  on  any  soil,  but  it  is  not  generally  troublesome. 
Draining  and  manuring  will  tend  to  reduce  it. 

Agrimony  (Agrimonia  Eupatoria  L.)  is  a  very  common 
weed  of  pastures  and  borders  of  fields.  It  is  an  erect, 
hairy,  leafy  plant,  without  branches,  i  to  2  feet  high, 
with  pinnate,  toothed  leaves,  and  shortly  stalked,  small, 
yellow  flowers  placed  in  a  long,  spike-like  raceme.  The 
plant  is  perennial,  and  flowering  occurs  between  June 
and  August. 

Salad  Burnet  (Polerium  Sanguisorba  L.)  is  rejected  by 
stock  owing  to  its  hard,  woody  character  when  well 
grown,  and  is  therefore  not  desirable  in  excessive  quan- 
tities. At  the  same  time  it  is  eaten  in  the  young  state 
by  stock,  and  its  large  deep  root  system  makes  its 
presence  in  small  amounts  useful,  as  it  opens  up  the 
soil  to  aerial  influences,  and  thus  promotes  a  healthy 
condition  of  the  root  system  of  other  herbage.  It  is 
useful  on  dry  calcareous  pastures,  where  difficulty  is 
frequently  experienced  in  ensuring  the  growth  of  any- 
thing better.  It  is  a  perennial,  flowering  in  June  to 
August,  is  about  ij  feet  high,  with  slender,  much 
branched  stems.  The  leaves  are  pinnate,  the  five  to  ten 
pairs  of  leaflets  being  serrated  and  stalked.  The  small 
reddish-green  flowers,  without  petals,  are  grouped  in 
dense  heads. 

Greater  Burnet  (Poterium  officinale,  Hook,  f.)  is  similar 


i66  COMMON    WEEDS 

in  general  appearance  to  the  above,  but  larger.  It 
grows  in  damp  meadows,  where  it  replaces  better 
grasses,  and  should  therefore  be  cut  down,  and  if  pos- 
sible suppressed. 

Dog  Rose  (Rosa  canina  L.). — -This  favourite  and  hand- 
some hedgerow  plant  may  be  as  great  a  nuisance  as  the 
Blackberry  (p.  164).  Where  it  is  invading  land,  widen- 
ing hedges,  and  rendering  them  bushy  it  must  be 
grubbed  and  cut  out.  We  have  frequently  seen  hedges 
in  which  the  Blackberry  and  Dog  Rose  have  broadened 
the  "  hedgerow  "  by  several  feet,  a  wide  strip  of  ground 
on  either  side  of  the  hedge  proper  being  thus  rendered 
useless. 

ONAGRACE^E 

The  Willow  Herbs  (Epilobium  hirsutum  L.  and  E. 
parviflorum  Schreb.)  are  two  perennials  which  occur  in 
damp  fields  and  by  streams  and  ditches,  extending  by 
both  seeds  and  suckers  or  runners.  The  former  species, 
the  Great  Willow  Herb,  known  also  as  Codlins-and- 
Cream,  has  woolly  stems  which  grow  to  a  height  of  3  to 
5  feet.  The  leaves  are  3  to  5  inches  long,  and  oblong- 
lanceolate  with  incurved  teeth,  in  opposite  pairs.  It 
bears  a  large  number  of  funnel-shaped,  rosy-purple 
flowers  about  \  to  f  of  an  inch  across.  E.  parviflorum, 
the  Small-flowered  Hairy  Willow  Herb,  is  a  smaller 
plant,  i  to  3  feet  high,  with  sessile,  lanceolate  leaves,  i  to 
2  inches  long,  and  many  rosy-purple  flowers  one-third  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Both  species  flower  between  July 
and  August. 

In  order  to  reduce  these  weeds  where  they  occur 
abundantly  in  damp  soils,  draining  may  be  neces- 
sary ;  but  this  is  not  always  feasible,  owing  to  posi- 
tion near  river  or  stream.  In  such  a  case  the  plants 
should  be  cut  over  as  fast  as  they  grow,  and  a  good 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        167 

bottom  herbage  encouraged  by  suitable  manurial  treat- 
ment. 

CUCURBITACE^: 

Bryony  (Bryonia  dioica  L.)  occurs  freely  in  hedges, 
and  may  occasionally,  as  we  have  seen  during  the  past 
summer,  extend  by  its  climbing  tendrils  well  out  into 
grass  fields  reserved  for  hay.  In  such  cases  it  is 
dangerous,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  it  cut 
back.  (See  p.  293.) 

UMBELLIFER.E 

Marsh  Pennywort  (Hydrocotyle  vulgaris  L.),  known 
also  as  White-rot,  is  a  plant  found,  as  its  name  implies, 
on  marshy,  boggy,  damp  land.  It  is  a  small  perennial 
herb,  with  slender  white  creeping  stems,  with  leaves  J  to 
2  inches  long  at  the  nodes  on  long  stalks.  The  umbels 
of  small  pinkish-green  flowers  grow  from  the  axil  of 
the  leaves  on  short  stalks,  and  appear  in  May  to  August. 
Where  it  occurs  in  excess  this  weed  may  be  combated 
by  draining. 

Goutweed  (^Egopodium  Podagraria  L.),  also  termed 
Goat-Weed,  Herb  Gerard,  occurs  in  damp  and  waste 
places.  It  has  a  hollow,  grooved,  branched  stem,  i  to  2 
feet  in  height ;  white,  pungent,  creeping  rootstock ; 
large  leaves,  divided  or  cut  two  or  three  times  ;  and 
small  white  flowers  in  terminal  umbels,  these  appear- 
ing from  June  to  August.  Should  it  encroach  on 
any  land  where  it  is  not  wanted  it  must  be  cut 
down,  and  the  creeping  rootstocks  preferably  grubbed 
out. 

Earth-nut  (Conopodium  denudalum  Koch.),  also  given 
the  names  Pig-nut  and  Arnut,  occurs  freely  in  pastures 
on  gravelly  or  sandy  soils.  It  is  a  pretty,  slender,  little 


i68 


COMMON    WEEDS 


plant  (Fig.  44),  usually  i  to  2  feet,  although  it  may  attain 
3  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are  comparatively  few,  and 
finely  divided  ;  the  rootstock  or  tuber,  which  lies  deeply 

beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  is  rough, 
brown  or  purplish,  often 
half  the  size  of  a  walnut ; 
the  terminal  umbels  of 
small,  white  flowers  ap- 
pear in  May  and  June, 
or  later.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  do  much 
in  the  case  of  this  weed 
except  take  steps  to  im- 
prove the  pasture  and 
crowd  it  out.  If  in  quan- 
tity, it  may  be  combated 
by  close  grazing  with 
sheep. 

The  Beaked  Parsleys 
or  Chervils  (Anthriscus 
vulgaris  Pers.  and  A.  syl- 
vestris  Hoffm.)  are  com- 
mon weeds  on  practically 
all  soils,  on  hedge  banks, 
by  roadsides,  and  en- 
croaching on  grass  land 
from  hedgerows  and 
waste  land.  The  former 
species  is  an  annual,  2 
to  3  feet  high,  branched 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  44. — Common  Earth-nut  (Conopodium 
denudatum  Koch.). 

and  leafy,  with  tripinnate 

leaves  ;  the  minute  white  flowers  appear  in  May  to 
June,  in  umbels  which  grow  from  the  side  of  the  stem, 
on  rather  short  stalks  opposite  the  leaves.  The  small 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        169 

fruits  bear  hooked  bristles. 
Wild  Chervil  (A.  sylvestris), 
on  the  other   hand,   is   <i 
perennial,     flowering     in 
April  to  June.     The  um- 
bels of  white  flowers  are 
terminal    (Fig.    45),    and 
the  fruits  smooth.    Where 
these  two  plants  are  plenti- 
ful they  should  be  regu- 
larly  cut    before   seeding 
takes  place,  a  plan  which 
soon    materially    reduces 
them,  for  both  are  spread 
by  seed.      As  the  growth 
of  A .  sylvestris  is  stated  *  to 
be   greatly   promoted    by 
nitrate   of   soda,   the   use 
of  this  manure  should  be 
avoided  where   the  plant 
occurs.      Superphosphate 
and    kainit    promote    the 
growth  of  clover  and  cer- 
tain  grasses,   which   help 
to   choke   out  the  weed  ; 
2  to  3  cwt.  of  each  may 
be   applied   per  acre.      If 
the     weeds     occur     in 
meadows,  the  hay  should 
be  cut  as  early  as  possible. 
Cow     Parsnip,     Hog-- 
weed   (Heracleiini    Sphon- 

dylium  L.)._ This  (Fig.  46)    FlG.  45._Beaked  Parsley  (Anihriscus  sylvestris 
is     a     Common     and     well-  Hoffm.),  x  about  §.     Flower  enlarged. 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric^  1907,  p.  183. 


170 


COMMON    WEEDS 


known  perennial  weed, 
which  frequently  attains 
a  large  size  (3  to  6  feet 
in  height).  It  is  a  rough, 
hairy,  stout  plant,  with 
hollow  stems  and  large 
leaves  (i  to  3  feet), 
much  less  lobed  and 
divided  than  most  plants 
of  the  order.  The  leaves 
have  large  pale  sheath- 
ing bases.  The  flowers 
are  white  or  pink,  the 
outer  ones  of  the  umbel 
irregular,  one  or  more 
petals  being  consider- 
ably enlarged.  This 
plant  is  not  poisonous, 
like  Hemlock,  and  cattle 
eat  it  with  impunity  ; 
tame  rabbits  are  regu- 
larly fed  on  it.  It  is 
common  on  hedge 
banks,  roadsides,  waste 
places, and  pastures,  and 
flowers  in  July.  Where 
it  occurs  plentifully  it 
may  be  reduced  by 
regular  cutting. 

Wild  Carrot  (Daucus 
Carota  L.)  is  a  weed 
which  occurs  in  both 
arable  and  pasture  land, 
but  is  chiefly  common 

FIG.  46.— Cow  Parsnip,  Hogweed  (Heracleum  *          r»a1r»ar*»rmc    unrl 

Sphondylium  L.),   x  about  §.     Flower  enlarged.       On    Cl  Y    CalCarCOUS    ailQ 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        171 

loamy  pastures.  Its  seeds  are  sometimes  found  as  an 
impurity  in  samples  of  red  clover,  alsike,  trifolium, 
dogstail,  and  Italian  ryegrass  seeds.  It  is  either  annual 
or  biennial,  with  tough,  hard  tap-root  and  stem,  and 
much  cut  or  pinnate  leaves,  the  leaflets  being  many 
and  small.  The  small  flowers  are  white  at  the  outside 
of  the  umbel,  and  reddish-purple  towards  the  centre; 
in  the  fruiting  stage  the  umbellules  are  arranged  at 
different  heights,  giving  the  compound  umbel  the  form 
of  a  cup-shaped  structure  resembling  a  miniature  bird's 
nest.  Flowering  takes  place  from  June  to  August.  The 
scent  and  flavour  resemble  those  of  the  cultivated 
carrot,  which  was  derived  from  the  wild  form. 

Wherever  this  plant  occurs  in  meadow  or  pasture  an 
endeavour  should  be  made  to  get  rid  of  it.  This  may 
be  done  in  several  ways:  (i)  By  a  general  improve- 
ment in  the  pasture  or  meadow  ;  (2)  by  cutting  the 
weed  regularly  to  prevent  seeding  ;  (3)  by  spudding 
the  plants  before  flowering  ;  and  (4)  in  certain  bad 
cases,  perhaps,  by  ploughing  up  and  taking  a  root  crop, 
a  practice  which  would  not  be  favoured  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  although  it  is  recommended  by  the  Canadian 
Department  of  Agriculture  ("  meadow  land  infested 
with  Wild  Carrot  should  be  broken  up  and  re- 
seeded"),  by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  ("when 
the  field  becomes  badly  infested  it  should  be  ploughed 
and  cultivated  and  treated  to  a  hoed  crop "),  and  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  ("grub- 
bing in  the  fall  ;  cultivation  "). 

Upright  Hedge  Parsley  (Torilis  Anthriscus  Gaert.)  is 
an  upright  slender  annual,  i  to  3  feet  high,  with  leaves 
which  are  once  or  twice  divided,  the  leaflets  many  and 
lobed.  The  umbels  are  five-  to  twelve-rayed,  and  the 
minute  flowers  are  white  or  pink,  and  appear  in  July  and 
August.  This  weed  occurs  in  hedges  and  waste  places, 


172  COMMON    WEEDS 

and  may  encroach  upon  arable  fields.  It  should  be 
regularly  cut  down  to  prevent  seeding,  and  in  arable 
land  should  be  hoed  or  hand  pulled  according  to  the 
stage  of  growth. 

RUBIACE^E 

Yellow  Bedstraw  (Galiutn  verum  L.)  is  closely  related 
to  Common  Cleavers  or  Goose  Grass  (see  p.  83).  It 
attains  i  to  3  feet  in  height,  and  has  many  slender 
angular  stems,  and  rough,  small  linear  leaves,  arranged 
(8  to  12)  in  a  whorl.  The  small  golden-yellow  flowers 
appear  in  June  to  September,  and  grow  in  dense  cymes 
from  the  leaf  axils  and  from  the  end  of  the  stems.  The 
plant  is  perennial,  and  is  propagated  by  seeds  and  a 
stoloniferous  rootstock.  It  occurs  plentifully  on  grass 
land  on  sandy,  loamy,  and  calcareous  soils. 

Cutting  to  exhaust  the  plant  and  prevent  seeding  is 
recommended,  with  manurial  treatment  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  herbage. 

DIPSACE^: 

Wild  Teazle  (Dipsacus  sylvestris  L.)  occurs  plenti- 
fully in  some  districts  in  hedges,  by  ditches,  and  in 
rough  damp  meadow  land,  especially  on  -clay  and 
calcareous  soils.  It  is  a  tall,  stout,  prickly  plant,  with 
large  opposite  sessile  leaves  which  are  prickly  on  the 
midrib  beneath.  The  lilac  flowers,  appearing  in  August 
and  September,  occur  in  dense,  heads,  which  are  large 
and  conical,  covered  with  straight  bristly  bracts.  (In 
the  cultivated  Fuller's  Teazle  (Dipsacus  Fullonum  L.)  the 
bracts  are  hooked.)  This  plant,  being  a  biennial,  is 
propagated  by  seeds  ;  it  disappears  if  regularly  cut 
down  before  the  flowers  mature. 

Field  Scabious  (Scabiosa  arvensis  L.)  is  a  deep-rooted 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        173 

perennial  common  on  calcareous  soils,  both  in  grass 
and  arable  land.  In  grass  land  it  must  be  combated, 
like  so  many  other  weeds  of  pastures,  by  judicious 
manuring. 

Devil's  Bit  (S.  succisa  L.)  is  a  common  weed  of 
meadows  and  pastures.  The  blue  or  purplish  flowers 
are  arranged  in  terminal  button-shaped  heads.  The 
stems  are  unbranched,  i  to  3  feet  high,  with  few  or 
no  leaves  upon  them.  Where  this  plant  is  common, 
judicious  manuring  should  be  practised. 

COMPOSITE 

This  order  furnishes  a  larger  number  of  weeds  to 
both  arable  and  grass  land  than  any  other,  perhaps  for 
the  reason  that  it  includes  about  one-tenth  of  all  known 
flowering  plants,  many  of  which  are  spread  by  wind- 
borne,  parachute-like  "  seeds." 

The  Burdock  (Arctium  Lappa  L.)  is  an  erect  branched 
biennial,  with  stout  stem,  often  3  to  4  feet  high,  and 
large  alternate,  stalked,  heart-shaped  and  pointed  leaves, 
usually  very  cottony  beneath,  and  frequently  a  foot 
long.  The  roots  are  strong  and  deep  seated.  The 
small  purple  flowers  appear  in  July  and  August, 
grouped  together  into  globose  heads  each  about  i 
inch  in  diameter  ;  the  heads  have  stiff,  spiny,  hooked 
bracts,  and  readily  adhere  to  the  clothes  of  man  or  the 
fur  and  hair  of  animals,  thus  securing  their  distribution. 
The  name  Arctium  is  derived  from  the  Greek  arktos,  a 
bear,  from  the  rough  heads  or  "  burs."  The  plant 
grows  chiefly  in  waste  places,  by  hedges  and  ditches, 
and  in  damp  grass  land  on  calcareous  and  clay  soils. 

The  Burdock  (Fig.  47)  is  a  biennial  spread  by 
seeds,  and  should  therefore  be  attacked  by  regular 
cutting  early  in  the  summer  as  soon  as  the  plants  begin 


Photo,  1909. 


/.  C.  Vartv-Smith. 


FIG.  47. — Burdock  (Arctium  Lappa  L.). 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        175 

to  show  up  well,  to  prevent  seeding.  Where  the  pest 
is  known  to  occur  the  first-year  plants,  which  merely 
consist  of  the  roots  and  a  large  rosette  of  leaves,  should 
be  thoroughly  spudded  and  grubbed  out,  cutting  them 
off  well  below  the  crown. 

Knapweed  (Centaurea  nigra  L.),  known  under  a 
variety  of  names,  as  Hardheads,  Hardhack,  Black-head, 
is  a  too  common  weed  of  pastures  and  meadows,  and 
occasionally  present  on  lawns,  occurring  especially  on 
clays,  loams,  and  calcareous  soils,  particularly  if  in  poor 
condition.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  a  slender, 
grooved,  usually  branched  and  upright  stem,  with 
scattered  variable  hairy  leaves,  the  upper  ones  narrow 
and  tapering  (Fig.  48).  The  small  purple  flowers 
appear  in  June  to  September,  grouped  together  in 
dense  globose  heads  of  about  i  inch  in  diameter,  hard 
and  black  or  dark  brown.  The  heads  are  not  prickly, 
but  roughish. 

Knapweed  is  chiefly  harmful  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  a  useless  plant  in  grass  land,  with  tough,  hard 
stems  which  are  avoided  by  stock,  although  the  young 
leaves  are  readily  eaten  by  cattle  and  sheep.  If  allowed 
to  seed  it  spreads  and  becomes  very  troublesome, 
rendering  pastures  unsightly,  and  usurping  space  which 
should  be  occupied  by  better  herbage. 

Where  practicable,  Hardhead  should  be  combated 
by  early  cutting  to  prevent  seeding,  and  the  plants  may 
be  hand  pulled  in  damp  weather,  though  as  the  root 
system  is  large  and  the  plant  perennial,  pieces  are 
often  left  in  the  soil  to  grow  again.  The  best  method 
of  dealing  with  it  is  to  manure  the  land  liberally  so  as 
to  encourage  better  vegetation.  A  good  dressing  for 
this  purpose  is  £  cwt.  sulphate  of  ammonia,  3  to  4 
cwt.  superphosphate,  2  to  3  cwt.  kainit  per  acre, 
which  should  be  applied  every  year  until  the  grasses 


176  COMMON    WEEDS 

become  improved  and  vigorous,  when  the   Knapweed 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  48. — Knapweed,  Hardheads  (Centaurea  nigra  L. ). 

will  be  choked  out.      If  farmyard  manure  is  available,  a 
dressing  might  be  given  in  the  second  season  instead  of 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        177 

the  artificial  manures  named.  On  heavy  land  basic  slag 
should  be  employed  instead  of  superphosphate. 

Field  Scabious  (Cenlaurea  Scabiosa  L.),  also  known 
as  Hardheads,  Great  Knapweed,  Matfellon,  sometimes 
occurs  abundantly  on  dry  calcareous  pastures.  It  is 
a  perennial,  with  woody  rootstock,  grooved  stem  2  to  3 
feet  high,  and  a  covering  of  soft  hairs.  The  leaves  are 
large,  4  to  10  inches  long,  deeply  cut  and  lobed  ;  the 
heads  of  bright  purple  flowers  are  ij  inch  or  more  in 
diameter,  rayed,  and  with  more  spreading  flowers  than 
those  of  C.  nigra.  It  flowers  between  June  and  Sep- 
tember. In  general  this  plant  in  pastures  must  be 
combated  as  in  the  case  of  C.  nigra.  It  occurs  also 
on  arable  land. 

Thistles  (Cnicus  sp.)  are  among  the  worst  and 
commonest  weeds  of  grass  land,  and  when  they  grow 
most  luxuriantly  are,  like  many  other  weeds,  held  to 
be  a  sign  of  good  land.  Thistles  are  common  to  both 
grass  and  arable  land,  and  are  almost  equally  trouble- 
some in  either.  Not  only  do  they  crowd  out  the 
legitimate  crop  by  taking  up  space,  light,  air,  heat, 
water,  and  plant  food,  so  reducing  the  yield  of  valuable 
produce,  but  they  are  a  great  trouble  at  the  time  of 
hay  harvest,  harming  the  mowing  machine,  pricking  the 
hands  of  loaders,  irritating  horses,  and  in  other  ways 
objectionable.  In  corn  crops  too  they  are  an  un- 
mitigated nuisance.  When  corn  must  be  bound  by 
hand  they  are  a  veritable  pest  ;  in  the  binder  they  are 
troublesome,  as  also  at  the  time  of  stooking,  carting, 
stacking,  and  thrashing.  In  these  cases  the  presence  of 
Thistles,  as  we  know  from  practical  experience,  is  a 
bugbear  to  master  and  men  alike.  Loose  barley,  for 
example,  is  not  the  pleasantest  material  to  load  when 
over-dried,  but  when  full  of  Thistles  it  becomes  much 
worse.  In  the  returns  given  at  p.  233,  it  will  be 

M 


178  COMMON    WEEDS 

observed  that  Thistles  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list 
as  the  worst  weeds  of  grass  land. 

As  all  the  species  of  Thistles  occur  in  grass  land,  it 
will  be  convenient  to  refer  to  them  here. 

The  Spear  Thistle  (Cnicus  lanceolatus  Hoffm.)  is  a 
large,  strong,  purple-flowered  plant  (Fig.  49),  blooming 
in  July  and  August.  The  flower-heads  are  upwards  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  either  single  or  placed  two  or 
three  together,  the  whole  plant  being  well  provided 
with  short  spines.  Seeds  are  plentifully  produced,  and, 
attached  to  the  feathery  pappus  or  down,  are  borne 
away  from  the  parent  plant  and  distributed  by  the 
wind.  Percival  says  that  the  seeds  "germinate  very 
easily  in  two  or  three  days  when  they  are  placed  in 
suitable  soil.  The  Spear  Thistle,  as  met  with  in  the 
fields,  is  usually  a  biennial.  I  have,  however,  flowered 
seedlings  in  one  season,  but  such  plants  did  not  ripen 
seeds  satisfactorily,  and  were  destroyed  by  frost  in  the 
autumn."  In  the  first  year  the  Spear  Thistle  produces 
a  compact  rosette  of  leaves,  flowers  and  produces  seed 
in  the  second  year,  and  then  dies.  The  root  system 
is  in  the  form  of  a  deep  tap-root. 

The  Marsh  Thistle  (Cnicus  palustris  Hoffm.)  is  found 
chiefly  in  damp,  undrained  pastures  and  meadows.  It 
is  a  biennial,  and  grows  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
Spear  Thistle.  The  root  system  is  much  divided,  the 
stem  branched,  and  the  plant  very  spinous.  The 
leaves  are  hairy  on  both  surfaces,  the  heads  are  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  in  leafy  clusters,  the 
flowers  themselves  being  dark  purple.  The  seeds,  says 
Percival,  "  only  germinate  under  the  peculiar  acid  con- 
ditions of  marshy,  damp  soil." 

The  Stemless  Thistle  (Cnicus  acaulis  Hoffm.),  some- 
times termed  the  Chalk  Thistle,  is  more  troublesome 
than  is  commonly  recognised.  It  is  a  perennial  which, 


/.  ffm  Crabtree. 
FIG.  49.— Spear  Thistle  (Cnicus  lanceolatus  Hoffm.). 


i8o  COMMON    WEEDS 

according  to  Hooker,  occurs  on  gravelly  and  chalky 
pastures  in  England,  from  Chester  and  Lincoln  south- 
wards. The  flat  rosette  of  leaves  destroys  the  patch 
of  grass  upon  which  it  lies.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is 
usually  stemless,  and  bears  sessile  or  shortly  stalked 
heads  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  At  the  same  time  it 
has  an  extensively  creeping  rootstock,  which  makes  it 
difficult  to  eradicate. 

The  Creeping  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis  Hoffm.)  is 
undoubtedly  the  worst  of  all  Thistles,  and  is  by  some 
held  to  be  the  commonest  weed  pest  of  agriculture. 
Not  only  is  it  perennial,  but  to  complicate  matters  it 
spreads  rapidly  by  means  of  an  extensive  creeping 
root  system  (Fig.  50)  which  develops  in  all  directions  ; 
broken  pieces  of  the  rootstock  easily  take  root  and 
give  rise  to  new  plants.  Flowering  stems  are  sent  up 
from  buds  which  are  produced  at  intervals  on  the 
creeping  roots,  which  are  whitish  or  earthy-coloured, 
and  of  the  thickness  of  a  small  quill.  Vast  numbers 
of  plants  of  this  kind  of  Thistle  produce  down  in  the 
flower-heads,  but  no  perfectly  formed  seeds.  This  has 
led  many  farmers  to  believe  that  the  seeds  of  the 
Creeping  Thistle  do  not  germinate  ;  such,  however,  is 
not  the  case,  as  certain  plants  produce  ripe  seeds 
wrhich  germinate  and  grow  into  new  plants  quite 
readily.  The  Creeping  Thistle  occurs  both  in  grass 
and  arable  land,  and  is  difficult  to  eradicate  in  either. 
All  four  of  these  species  of  Thistle  flower  between  July 
and  September  or  October. 

Where  Thistles  occur  in  grass  land  they  must  be 
attacked  with  vigour  and  persistence.  Since  the  Spear 
and  Marsh  Thistles  are  biennials,  they  may  readily  be 
reduced  in  numbers  by  regular  cutting  and  spudding 
to  prevent  flowering  and  seeding,  and  to  this  end  the 
spud,  sickle,  scythe,  or  thistle  cutter  (Fig.  4),  or  in 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        181 

some  cases  an  old  grass  mower,  may  be  brought  into 
requisition  in  June  and  July.  Thorough  work  is  neces- 
sary, and  the  ground  should  be  covered  a  second  time 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long, 


FIG.  50.—  Creeping  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis  Hoffm.),  showing  extensively 
creeping  roots. 

after  an  interval  of  two  or  three  weeks  wherever 
possible.  The  seedlings  appear  as  rosettes  of  leaves 
in  the  autumn  and  early  spring,  at  which  times  the 


1 82  COMMON    WEEDS 

young  plants  should  be  thoroughly  spudded  and  re- 
moved from  their  position  to  make  certain  that  the 
roots  are  severed. 

The  Stemless  Thistle  must  be  combated  by  regular 
spudding  as  soon  as  the  flower-heads  begin  to  show, 
no  other  mechanical  means  being  practicable  ;  a  pinch 
of  sulphate  of  ammonia  or  sulphate  of  copper  (blue- 
stone)  may  be  applied  with  advantage  to  the  cut  sur- 
face of  each  plant  spudded,  one  worker  spudding  and 
a  second  applying  the  powdered  material.  Both  the 
bluestone  and  sulphate  of  ammonia  should  be  applied 
carefully,  and  not  dropped  on  the  surrounding  grass. 
At  the  same  time  manuring  should  be  practised  to  aid 
other  herbage  to  crowd  out  the  Thistle. 

In  the  case  of  the  Creeping  Thistle  one,  or  even  two 
cuttings  will  be  insufficient,  owing  to  the  extensive 
creeping  root  system,  the  reserves  of  food  stored  there 
serving  to  produce  fresh  shoots  after  repeated  cutting. 
Cutting,  therefore,  must  be  repeated  from  early  spring 
until  late  summer,  giving  this  pest  no  chance  to  pro- 
duce seed,  and  exhausting  it  as  much  as  possible. 
"  Faithful,  systematic  cutting  with  the  spud  or  scythe 
in  meadows  and  pastures  throughout  two  seasons  .  .  . 
is  a  sure  plan  of  getting  rid  of  this  most  troublesome 
agricultural  pest."  * 

Cotton  Thistle  (Onopordon  Acanthium  L.),  known  also 
as  the  Scotch  Thistle,  is  a  stout,  tall,  hoary,  or 
"  cottony "  plant,  with  branched  stem,  wavy  divided 
leaves,  and  many  large,  roundish,  "  cobwebby "  heads 
of  pale  purple  flowers,  which  appear  in  July  to  Sep- 
tember. It  is  a  biennial,  and  where  it  occurs  should 
be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way  as  the  Spear  and  Marsh 
Thistles  (p.  180). 

Butter-bur   (Petasites   vulgaris    Desf.)   is    a   perennial 

1  Leaflet  No.  166,  Board  of  Agriculture. 


Photo,  1909.  /•  C.  Varty-Smith. 

FIG.  51.— Butter-bur  (Petasites  vulgaris  Desf.),  in  July. 


1 84  COMMON    WEEDS 

plant,  with  an  extensively  creeping,  fleshy  rootstock 
(Fig.  51),  from  which  flowering  stems  are  sent  up 
during  the  early  spring  months  (February  to  May) 
before  the  leaves  appear.  The  flowers  are  pinkish  or 
dull  lilac,  in  head-like  panicles  on  a  short,  fleshy  stalk. 
The  male  and  female  flowers  are  usually  in  different 
heads.  As  in  the  case  of  Coltsfoot,  the  leaves  follow 
the  flowers  ;  they  are  very  large — up  to  3  feet  across 
— resembling  those  of  rhubarb,  and  borne  on  long 
stalks  ;  they  are  white  and  cottony  beneath.  The 
common  name  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
fact  that  the  large  leaves  were  formerly  used  for  the 
purpose  of  wrapping  up  butter,  but  there  are  no 
tl  burs  "  on  the  plant. 

The  Butter-bur  occurs  in  damp,  wet  meadows,  in 
low-lying  land  near  streams  and  rivers,  especially  on 
sandy  and  clayey  soils,  where  it  is  sometimes  a  serious 
pest.  It  has  been  described  as  "  the  largest,  and, 
where  it  abounds,  the  most  pernicious  of  all  the  weeds 
which  this  country  produces  "  (Johns). 

This  weed  must  be  attacked  by  cutting  down  the 
flowering  stems  to  prevent  seeding,  and  later  by  per- 
sistent cutting  of  the  large  leaves  to  prevent  the  manu- 
facture and  storage  of  food  for  the  future  use  of  the 
plants.  Cut  surfaces  after  spudding  might  be  treated 
with  a  pinch  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  sulphate  of  iron, 
or  sulphate  of  copper  (bluestone).  Where  it  can  be 
carried  out,  drainage  is  of  use  ;  very  small  patches 
may  be  grubbed  out,  but  as  the  root  system  is  exten- 
sive and  deep  seated,  this  plan  is  too  costly  on  large 
areas ;  spraying  with  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
might  be  tried,  as  the  leaves  are  so  large  and  rough  they 
would  be  likely  to  retain  the  liquid,  but  cutting  is  prob- 
ably simpler  and  quicker.  Improvement  of  the  herb- 
age by  manurial  treatment  tends  to  reduce  the  weed. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        185 

Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara  L.)  is  chiefly  a  weed  of 
arable  land  (see  p.  87),  but  often  occurs  in  pastures 
and  meadows.  Sutton  says  that  pastures  on  poor,  stiff 
clays  are  not  infrequently  overrun  by  it.  In  such 
cases  the  flowering  stems  should  be  cut  in  February 
to  April,  when  they  appear  before  the  leaves,  and  later 
the  half-grown  leaves  should  be  cut,  thus  weakening 
the  plants.  The  pest  can  be  gradually  reduced  and 
largely  destroyed  by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  manures, 
such  as  nitrate  of  soda  and  farmyard  manure.  As  this 
weed  occurs  freely  in  damp  clays,  and  in  damp  sandy 
soils  overlying  impervious  clays,  draining  is  of  great 
value. 

The  Common  Daisy  (Bellis  perennis  L.),  or  "  Day's 
Eye,"  is  too  well  known  to  need  description  here.  It 
occurs  on  almost  all  soils  in  poor  pastures  and  meadows 
and  on  lawns,  flowering  almost  all  the  year  round. 
The  rosettes  of  leaves  lying  flat  on  the  ground  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  grasses  and  clovers,  as  may  at 
once  be  seen  on  cutting  off  a  Daisy  plant  below  the 
crown  and  removing  it,  a  bare  round  patch  being  left. 
When  very  plentiful  in  pastures  much  loss  of  good 
herbage  occurs.  The  best  plan  of  dealing  with  this 
weed  is  to  encourage  clovers  and  better  grasses  by 
manurial  treatment,  thus  smothering  it  out  by  taller 
and  more  useful  herbage.  (As  to  Daisies  on  lawns,  see 
Chap.  X.) 

Yarrow  or  Milfoil  (Achillea  Millefolium  L.),  although 
readily  eaten  by  sheep,  is  inclined  to  overrun  grass  land 
on  poor  soils,  and  must  therefore  be  included  here  as 
a  weed.  Its  good  qualities  when  kept  in  check  by 
grazing  has  led  to  its  inclusion  as  a  constituent  of  seed 
mixtures  for  laying  down  permanent  pasture.  It  must, 
however,  be  utilised  in  this  manner  with  great  care  if  at 
all,  as  the  extensive  creeping  rootstock  enables  it  to 


i86  COMMON    WEEDS 

spread  rapidly.  When  the  produce  is  to  be  mown  it 
should  not  be  included  in  seed  mixtures,  as  the  grown 
plants  are  woody  in  character,  refused  by  stock,  and 
of  no  value  in  hay. 

Yarrow  occurs  on  many  soils,  but  is  most  abundant 
on  those  of  a  dry  or  loamy  character.  It  grows  from 
i  foot  to  nearly  3  feet  in  height,  with  furrowed  and  leafy 
stems.  The  leaves  are  2  to  6  inches  long,  and  very 
finely  divided.  The  flowers,  which  are  white  or  pinkish, 
appear  between  May  and  September  ;  they  occur  in 
small  heads  arranged  in  corymbs  which  roughly  re- 
semble umbels.  If  it  be  desired  to  reduce  this  plant 
where  it  occurs  in  meadows,  manuring  with  farmyard 
manure,  nitrate  of  soda,  or  sulphate  of  ammonia  should 
be  practised. 

Ox-eye  Daisy  (Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum  L.),  some- 
times called  ll  Dog  Daisy,"  is  an  erect  perennial 
with  branched  stems  bearing  large  white  daisy-like 
flowers,  i  to  2  inches  across.  It  is  most  common 
in  grass  land  in  poor  condition,  especially  on  clays 
and  calcareous  loams  ;  it  may  also  occur  in  arable 
land.  It  flowers  from  June  to  August.  The  free  use 
of  farmyard  and  other  manure  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  the  land  has  the  effect  of  greatly  diminish- 
ing the  Ox-eye  Daisy.  The  use  of  salt  is  also  recom- 
mended by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Farmers  Bull.  28).  As  the  seeds  of  this  weed  are 
a  common  impurity  in  grass  seeds,  it  is  necessary 
again  to  advise  the  use  of  only  pure  seeds.  In  Canada 
the  Ox-eye  Daisy  is  called  Poverty  Weed,  and  it 
is  stated  that  it  "  can  be  got  rid  of  only  by  break- 
ing up  the  sod."  l  The  Canadian  Department  of  Agri- 
culture recommend2  ploughing,  and  a  short  rotation 

1  Bull.  128,  Ont.  Agric.  Coll. 

2  Farm  Weeds,  Dept.  of  Agric.,  Ottawa. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        187 

including  seeding  down  to  clover  at  short  intervals, 
as  probably  the  best  method  of  cleaning  land  of  this 
weed.  Early  cutting  of  grass  for  hay  may  be  practised 
to  prevent  seeding. 

Marsh  Cudweed  (Gnaphalium  uliginosum  L.)  is  an 
annual  of  damp  light  soils  ;  if  too  plentiful  it  should 
be  reduced  by  preventing  seeding,  and  by  encouraging 
taller  and  better  herbage.  (See  also  p.  96.) 

Ragwort  or  Ragweed  (Senecio  Jacobcea  L.)  is  a 
perennial  of  dry  pastures  and  meadows,  on  light, 
medium,  and  calcareous  soils.  It  is  a  tall,  handsome 
plant,  2  to  4  feet  high,  with  a  fleshy  tap-root,  smooth 
stem,  and  irregularly  cut  leaves  which  give  it  a 
"ragged"  appearance  (Fig.  52).  The  flower  heads 
are  golden-yellow,  resembling  yellow  daisies,  about 
i  inch  in  diameter,  and  grouped  in  dense  clusters  or 
corymbs.  Flowering  takes  place  between  June  and 
September.  It  is  closely  related  to  Groundsel  (S.  vul- 
garis),  a  well-knowTn  common  weed  of  gardens  and 
arable  land. 

Ragwort  is  extremely  plentiful  in  some  pastures,  and 
is  usually  avoided  by  cattle  in  this  country.  In  the 
young  state,  however,  it  is  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  so 
much  so  that  sheep  are  held  by  many  to  be  the  chief 
means  of  eradicating  it  by  the  process  of  close  de- 
pasturing. In  the  old  state,  about  the  time  of  flowering, 
the  plant  is  tough  and  hard.  In  Canada  this  weed  has 
been  shown  to  be  the  cause  of  the  Pictou  cattle  disease, 
or  hepatic  cirrhosis,  a  curious  and  fatal  disease  of  the 
liver,  which  has  given  considerable  trouble  during  the 
last  few  years.1  In  New  Zealand  also  the  same  trouble 
has  been  experienced,  and  much  loss  appears  to  have 
been  caused  by  it.2  Sheep  were  closely  pastured  on 

1  Farm  Weeds,  Dept.  of  Agric.,  Ottawa. 

2  Ann.  Refts.,  N.  Z.  Dept.  Agric.,  1903  and  1904. 


1 88  COMMON    WEEDS 

an  area  of  about  4000  acres,  with  the  object  of  eradicat- 


Photo,  1909.  /.  C.  Varty-Smith. 

FIG.  52. — Ragwort  (Senecio  Jacobcza  L.). 

ing  it,  and  at  first  seemed  to  do  well  ;    after  a  year, 
however,  considerable  mortality  ensued.     Mr.  Gilruth, 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        189 

Chief  Veterinarian,  concluded  that  if  Ragwort  does  not 
monopolise  the  ground  sheep  may,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, eat  it  daily  without  suffering  any  ill  effects, 
and  prove  a  decided  check  upon  its  growth,  if  they 
do  not  lead  to  its  almost  complete  eradication. 
Cattle  and  horses  avoided  it  when  possible.  In 
South  Africa,  also,  the  Molteno  Cattle  Sickness  (also 
cirrhosis  of  the  liver)  has  been  traced  to  a  weed  of 
the  Ragwort  variety  (Senecio  latifolius),  and  from  speci- 
mens examined  at  the  Imperial  Institute  two  new 
crystalline  alkaloids  (senecifoline  and  senecifolidine) 
have  been  isolated,  1.20  per  cent  being  present  in  the 
plant  before  flowering,  and  0.49  per  cent  after  flower- 
ing. No  disease  of  this  character  appears  to  have  been 
observed  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and,  the  conditions 
being  different  from  those  prevailing  in  Canada  and 
New  Zealand,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  plant  is  likely 
to  prove  injurious  here.  It  is,  however,  a  worthless 
weed  in  grass  land,  replacing  better  herbage,  and  should 
be  eradicated. 

The  best  plan  of  dealing  with  Ragwort  consists  in 
feeding  it  off  with  sheep  in  spring  and  early  summer, 
thus  weakening  the  plants  and  preventing  seeding. 
Where  the  flowering  plants  are  seen  they  may  be 
readily  pulled  up  after  rain.  In  Canada  there  is  good 
evidence  that  where  it  has  been  mowed  systematically 
it  has  in  a  short  time  disappeared.  M'Alpine  and 
Wright  state  that  "  the  best  method  is,  when  cutting 
off  the  heads,  to  leave  a  sufficient  length  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem  untouched.  In  the  autumn,  when  the 
ground  has  been  softened  by  rain  and  the  roots  have 
shrunk  and  hardened,  they  may  be  quite  easily  pulled 
out  by  hand."  "The  simplest  means  of  exterminat- 
ing the  Ragwort  is,  however,  to  graze  the  land  with 
sheep  in  the  early  summer.  .  .  .  On  land  regularly 


COMMON    WEEDS 


FIG.  53. — Cat's-ear  (Hypochceris  radicata  L.), 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        191 

stocked  with  sheep  not  a  single  Ragwort  can  be 
seen."  1 

Cat's-ear  (Hypochceris  radicata  L.)  is  a  perennial  weed 
of  grass  land  found  on  almost  all  soils.  The  leaves, 
growing  from  the  rootstock,  vary  in  length  from  3  or 
4  to  about  10  inches,  are  rough  and  wavy,  and,  like  the 
rest  of  the  plant,  somewhat  rough.  The  yellow  flowers, 
which  appear  in  June  to  September,  resemble  those  of 
the  Dandelion,  and  are  over  i  inch  in  diameter,  borne 
at  the  end  of  a  branched  stalk  nearly  a  foot  high  (Fig. 
53).  The  fruits  are  readily  scattered  by  the  wind,  and 
occur  also  in  many  grass  seed  samples. 

Goafs-beard  (Tragopogon  pratensis  L.)  is  an  erect 
perennial  plant,  from  i  to  2  feet  high,  with  sheath-like 
leaves  clasping  the  stem,  and  contracting  from  below 
upwards  until  linear  near  the  tip.  The  flowers  are 
yellow,  and  J  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  appearing  in 
June  to  July.  Hooker  says  that  the  root  is  edible,  and 
the  flowers  close  at  noon.  It  occurs  in  pastures  and 
meadows  as  well  as  arable  land,  especially  on  medium 
and  heavy  soils. 

Rough  Hawkbit  (Leontodon  hispidus)  has  oblong- 
lanceolate  leaves  resembling  those  of  Cat's-ear,  about  3 
to  5  inches  long  ;  the  yellow  heads  are  nearly  i  \  inch 
across,  borne  on  long  unbranched  stems  (Fig.  54). 
Flowering  takes  place  in  June  to  September.  The 
plant  is  perennial.  The  whole  weed  is  covered  with 
rough  harsh  hairs.  It  occurs  in  pastures  and  meadows 
on  dry  soils. 

Autumnal  Hawkbit  (Leontodon  autumnalis  L.)  in 
general  resembles  L.  hispidus ,  but  the  leaves  are  smooth, 
and  the  flowering  stalks  branched.  It  occurs  in  similar 
positions  to  the  last  species,  and  is  perennial. 

The  four  last-mentioned    weeds   are    all   spread   by 

1   Trans.  Highland  and  Agric.  See.,  1894. 


FlG.  54.— Rough  Hawkbit  (Leontodon  hispidus  L.),   x§;  with  floret  (left) 
and  achene  (right)  enlarged. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        193 

seeds  scattered  by  the  wind ;  seeding  should  therefore 
be  prevented  as  far  as  possible.  Regular  and  persistent 
spudding  will  reduce  them  ;  at  the  same  time  an  effort 
should  be  made  to  encourage  clovers  and  grasses  to 
choke  them  out. 

Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale  Wigg.  or  Leontodon 
Taraxacum  L.)  is  one  of  the  commonest  weeds  of  grass 
land,  and  needs  little  description.  It  possesses  very 
deep-seated  roots,  and  as  the  plant  is  a  perennial,  this 
makes  it  very  difficult  to  eradicate  by  the  use  of  the 
spud.  If  a  Dandelion  plant  be  examined  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  dense  mass  of  leaves  lie  almost  flat 
on  the  ground,  cover  comparatively  a  large  area,  and 
tend  to  smother  out  good  grasses  and  clovers.  The 
Dandelion  does  more  harm  in  this  way  than  is  com- 
monly believed. 

Flowering  takes  place  from  early  spring  until  the 
autumn,  i.e.  from  March  to  October,  and  if  the  flowers 
are  allowed  to  come  to  maturity  large  numbers  of  seeds 
are  produced  and  distributed  by  the  wind  by  means  of 
the  pappus  attachment.  The  author  has  a  record  of 
a  plant  bearing  twenty-seven  flowering  heads,  one  of 
which  bore  200  seeds,  giving  a  total  of  5400  seeds 
on  a  single  plant. 

The  Dandelion  should  be  repeatedly  attacked  by 
means  of  the  spud,  by  which  it  should  be  deeply  cut 
off.  The  use  at  the  same  time  of  a  complete  artificial 
manure  to  encourage  a  better  type  of  herbage  does 
tnuch  to  suppress  the  weed.  A  pinch  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia  placed  on  the  cut  surface  of  each  plant 
after  spudding  will  kill  the  roots,  but  this  is  too  tedious 
and  expensive  a  process,  except  in  the  case  of  small 
areas,  especially  lawns.  In  Dr.  Frank's  experiments1 
it  was  found  that  Dandelions,  sprayed  when  full 

1  Arb.  aus  tier  Biol.  Abth.filr  Land,  und  Fontw.,  I  Band,  1900. 

N 


194  COMMON    WEEDS 

grown  on  June  2oth  with  a  15  per  cent  solution 
of  sulphate  of  iron  (60  Ib.  in  40  gallons  of  water) 
became  quite  black  and  were  killed ;  as  gramineous 
plants  are  but  little  damaged  by  such  a  solution,  this 
method  might  be  tried  where  Dandelions  are  specially 
plentiful.  Experiment  in  both  the  United  States  and 
Germany,  also,  has  shown  that  a  5  per  cent  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  applied  as  a  spray  at  the  rate  of 
1 60  gallons  per  acre  has  largely  destroyed  the  leaves 
and  flowering  stems  of  Dandelions,  preventing  them 
from  seeding.  A  small  plot  should  be  treated  at  first 
as  an  experiment  to  watch  the  effect  under  local  con- 
ditions. As  regards  lawns,  &c.,  see  p.  345. 

Mouse-ear  Hawkweed  (Hieracium  Pilosella  L.)  is  a 
softly  hairy  perennial,  with  leafless  stems  about  a  foot 
in  height,  solitary  yellow  flower-heads  nearly  i  inch 
across,  oblong-lanceolate  leaves  2  to  4  inches  long,  and 
a  stoloniferous  or  creeping  rootstock.  Flowering,  May 
to  August. 

Orange  Hawkweed  (H.  aurantiacum  L.)  resembles 
the  last  species,  but  is  larger,  very  hairy,  and  the 
flowers  are  orange-red.  It  is  a  naturalised  per- 
ennial, propagated  by  both  seed  and  creeping  root- 
stock.  This  is  the  Devil's  Paint-brush  of  Canada, 
where  it  is  a  "  noxious "  weed  for  the  Dominion. 
Flowering,  June  to  August. 

Both  of  these  weeds  occur  in  dry  pastures,  and  should 
be  cut  down  to  prevent  seeding,  and  the  pasture  im- 
proved.     It  has  been  found  in  Canada  that  the  Orange- 
Hawkweed  may  be  killed  by  broad-casting  dry  salt  at 
the  rate  of  ij  tons  per  acre. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        195 

CAMPANULACE^: 

Sheep's  Scabious  (Jasione  montana  L.),  known  also 
as  Sheep's-bit,  is  an  upright  branched  weed  of  dry  hilly 
pastures  on  heathy  light  soils.  It  grows  to  a  height  of 
i  to  ii  feet,  is  somewhat  hairy,  with  few  leaves,  about 
\  to  i  inch  long,  and  several  heads  of  blue  or  lilac-blue 
flowers  over  \  inch  across,  superficially  resembling  a 
scabious.  It  flowers  in  June  to  September.  Seeding 
should  be  prevented,  and  the  soil  improved  by  manures. 

ERICACEAE 

Cross-leaved  Heath  (Erica  Tdralix  L.),  a  common 
and  well-known  Heath,  in  which  the  leaves  are  placed 
crosswise,  four  in  a  whorl  ;  the  rose-coloured  flowers 
are  in  drooping  terminal  clusters  or  heads.  It  grows 
i  to  ij  feet  high,  and  flowers  in  July  to  September. 

Common  Heather  or  Ling  (Calluna  vulgaris  Salisb.) 
is  also  one  of  our  commonest  plants  in  many  districts. 
It  is  from  i  to  2  feet  high,  woody  and  branched,  with 
very  small  smooth,  almost  linear  leaves.  Many  small 
rose-coloured  or  white  flowers  on  very  short  stalks 
are  produced,  persisting  long  after  the  fruit  is  ripe. 
Flowering,  July  to  September. 

Both  of  these  plants  are  perennials,  which  occur  on 
heathy  moorland  soils  and  on  upland  pastures  or 
rough  grazing  land.  If  it  be  required  to  reduce  them, 
burning,  with  grubbing  or  cultivation,  is  necessary  ;  an 
application  of  lime  checks  further  growth  of  all  the 
Heaths. 

GENTIANACE.E 

Common  Centaury  (Erythrcea  Centaurium  Pers.)  is 
an  erect,  smooth,  branched  plant  of  i  foot  or  more  in 
height,  with  radical,  elliptic-oblong  leaves  \  to  2  inches 


196  COMMON    WEEDS 

long,  the  upper  ones  being  acute.  The  pink  or  reddish 
flowers,  i  to  J  inch  across,  are  in  terminal  cymes.  The 
plant  blooms  between  June  and  September,  and  occurs 
in  dry  calcareous  and  sandy  pastures  and  waste  land.  It 
is  a  very  bitter  annual ;  regular  cutting  to  prevent 
seeding  reduces  it. 

Field  Gentian  (Gentiana  campestris  L.),  an  annual  of 
6  to  12  inches  in  height,  produces  in  July  to  October 
panicles  of  stalked  lilac  or  bluish  flowers  1  to  1  inch 
in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  opposite  and  lanceolate. 
This  plant  is  sometimes  very  common  on  hilly  pastures. 
If  too  plentiful,  regular  cutting  to  prevent  seeding 
will  reduce  it. 

BORAGINE^E 

Common  Comfrey  (Syniphytum  officinale  L.)  is  a  coarse, 
rough  perennial  herb  i  to  3  feet  in  height,  with  branched, 
fleshy,  brittle  roots,  pieces  of  which  will  grow  when 
broken  off.  The  stem  is  branched  and  angular,  with 
ovate-lanceolate  leaves  4  to  8  inches  long.  The  flowers 
may  be  white,  pink,  or  purple,  and  are  in  drooping 
clusters.  Flowering,  May  to  June.  This  plant  grows 
most  freely  in  damp  soils  near  streams  and  in  gardens. 
The  root  system  renders  it  difficult  of  eradication,  and 
in  grass  land  it  must  be  regularly  and  persistently 
mown  down  and  better  herbage  encouraged.  In  gar- 
dens, good  cultivation  and  careful  removal  of  the  roots 
must  be  practised.  Horses  and  other  stock  are  fond  of 
the  plant  in  a  green  state. 

PLANTAGINE^E 

Plantains  (Plantago  sp.)  are  well  known  to  most 
farmers  and  gardeners.  The  following  three  species 
are  very  troublesome  in  grass  land  : — 

i.  The  Ribwort  Plantain  or  Rib-grass  (P.  lanceolala 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND 


197 


L.),  with    long  (3   to   12   inches),  narrow,  ribbed,  more 
or  less  lanceolate  leaves,  tapering  rootstock,  and  short, 


Photo,  1909.  G.  Parkin. 

FIG.  55.— Ribwort  Plantain  (Plantago  lanceolata  L.). 

globose  or  cylindrical  heads  at  the  end  of  long,  angular 
stalks  (Fig.  55).     Flowering  takes  place  between  May 


198  COMMON    WEEDS 

and  October.  This  Plantain  is  known  to  children 
under  the  name  of  "  Cocks  and  Hens."  The  brown, 
shining  seeds  resemble  small  date  stones,  and  are  a 
common  impurity  in  many  kinds  of  clover  and  grass 
seeds.  In  America  this  species  is  known  as  Buckhorn. 

2.  Broad-leaved  Plantain  (P.  major  L.),  also  termed 
Greater    Plantain    or    Way-bread,    has    broadly-oblong 
ribbed  leaves  on  long  channelled  stalks,  and  a  stout  trun- 
cate rootstock  ;  the  flowers  are   in  very  long,  slender 
spikes,  and  when  in  fruit  are  often  given  to  cage  birds. 
Flowering  occurs  between  May  and  September. 

3.  Hoary  Plantain,  Lamb's  Tongue  (P.  media  L.)  has 
downy,  sub-sessile,  broadly  elliptical,  ribbed  leaves,  with 
short,  flat    stalks,  the    leaves   lying  very   close   to   the 
ground  (in  the  two  former  species  the  leaves  are  rather 
ascending)     and     destroying     all     vegetation     beneath, 
leaving  a  bare  patch  if    the  plant    be  removed.    The 
rootstock  is  tapering,  and  the  flowers  are  packed  in  a 
close  cylindrical  spike,  shorter  than  in  P.  major,  but  on 
a  longer  footstalk  or  stem.     The  flowers  are  fragrant, 
and  somewhat  conspicuous  owing  to  the   lilac  bracts. 
They  appear  during  June  to  October. 

These  three  Plantains  are  perennial,  and  all  are  com- 
mon to  grass  land  on  practically  all  soils,  although 
P.  media  is  perhaps  more  frequent  on  dry  calcareous 
soils.  They  are  very  troublesome  in  lawns  (see  p. 
345).  Where  these  weeds  are  very  plentiful  they  may 
be  spudded  out,  or  removed  with  the  docking  iron. 
Pure  seed,  free  from  the  seed  of  Plantains,  should  in- 
variably be  sown  for  leys  and  permanent  pasture.  It 
should  be  remarked  here  that  Rib-grass  is  frequently 
included  in  grass  mixtures,  but  why  so  it  is  difficult  to 
understand,  unless  solely  because  the  roots  open  up  the 
soil  to  air,  as  it  certainly  replaces  a  large  quantity  of 
better  herbage.  As  regards  arable  land,  see  p.  108. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        199 


SCROPHULARIACE.*: 

Common  or  Germander  Speedwell  (  Veronica  Chamce- 
drys  L.)  is  a  perennial  which  occurs  on  practically  all 
soils  in  grass  land,  but  is  usually  little  trouble.  It  has 
hairy  ascending  stems,  almost  sessile  ovate  leaves,  and 
axillary  racemes  of  bright  blue  roundish  flowers  |  inch 
across,  which  appear  in  May  and  June. 

Red  Bartsia  (Bartsia  Odontites  Huds.)  and  Yellow  or 
Viscid  Bartsia  (B.  viscosa  L.)  sometimes  occur  abund- 
antly in  grass  land.  (They  are  described  at  p.  272.) 

In  order  to  reduce  these  two  species  of  Bartsia  regu- 
lar cutting  to  prevent  seedirg  must  be  practised,  and 
close  grazing  with  sheep,  combined  with  manuring,  will 
reduce  them.  B.  Odontites  is  frequently 
found  in  arable  land,  where  it  may 
be  successfully  combated  by  thorough 
cultivation. 

LABIATE 

Self-heal  (Prunella  vulgar  is  L.)  is 
sometimes  very  troublesome  in  pas- 
tures and  meadows.  It  is  a  some- 
what hairy  perennial,  6  to  12  inches 
high,  with  a  square  stem,  almost 
oblong  opposite  leaves,  the  lower  pairs 
of  which  are  stalked  and  the  upper 
sessile.  The  plant  has  a  creeping 
rootstock.  The  small,  reddish-purple, 
two-lipped  flowers  occur  in  whorls  in 
dense  terminal  heads  (Fig.  56),  and 
open  in  July  to  September.  Samples  of 
clover  seeds  often  contain  the  almost  egg-shaped  seeds 
of  Self-heal  as  an  impurity.  The  latter  may  therefore 


FlG-  s 


2OO 


COMMON    WEEDS 


be  sown,  unless  care  be  taken  to  ensure  pure  clover 
seed.  The  plant  also  occurs  naturally  in  damp  grass 
land.  It  is  held  to  indicate  poor,  sterile  land,  and  in 
Scotland  is  known  by  the  name  "  Blaw-weary."  Close 
grazing  with  sheep  receiving  cake,  or  sound  judicious 
.  *'  ''\~-\  •  manurial  treat- 

ment, will  effect 
an  improvement 
in  the  herbage 
and  a  reduction 
in  the  weed.  On 
heavy  land  basic 
slag  is  useful  in 
checking  it,  and 
on  light  soils 
superphosphate. 

Common  Bugle 
(Ajuga  reptans  L.) 
is  another  peren- 
nial, somewhat 
similar  to  Self- 
heal,  the  stems 
being  6  to  12 
inches  high,  and 
the  leaves  sessile 
and  ovate.  The 
blue  flowers  are 
arranged  in  loose  whorls  in  longish  spikes  (2  to  8 
inches  long).  They  open  in  May  to  July.  The  plant, 
which  is  common  by  roadsides  and  in  grass  land,  is 
spread  by  seed  and  by  stolons  or  runners  (Fig.  57). 
It  may  be  combated  in  the  same  way  as  Self-heal. 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  57.  — Common  Bugle  (Ajuga  reptans  L.), 
in  a  pasture. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        201 

PKIMULACE^E 

The  Cowslip  (Primula  veris  L.),  so  well  known  to  all 
country  people,  is  a  perennial  which  grows  in  meadows 
and  pastures,  especially  on  sticky  calcareous  loams. 
The  flowers  appear  in  April  and  May.  Manuring  and 
close  grazing,  combined  with  regular  cutting,  tend  to 
reduce  it. 

POLYGONACE^E 

The  only  members  of  this  order  to  be  considered 
here  are  the  Docks  and  Sorrels,  than  which  few  weeds 
are  more  troublesome,  both  on  the  farm  and  in  the 
garden.  All  are  perennials,  and  most  of  them  difficult 
to  eradicate. 

The  Common  or  Broad-leaved  Dock  (Rumex  obtusi- 
folius  L.)  is  a  stout  erect  plant  2  to  3  feet  high,  with 
a  strong  tapering  root  descending  deeply  into  the  soil. 
The  radical  leaves  are  large,  often  a  foot  long.  They 
are  oblong-lanceolate,  borne  on  a  slender  stalk,  and 
have  a  somewhat  wavy  margin.  The  small  flowers,  on 
slender  pedicels,  are  produced  in  large  numbers  on  a 
narrow  panicle,  which  is  leafy  towards  the  base.  They 
produce  brownish,  triangular  fruits,  resembling  buck- 
wheat, which  are  enclosed  in  toothed  or  serrated  sepals. 
Flowering  takes  place  in  August  and  September,  and 
the  panicle  has  a  reddish-brown  tinge.  This  Dock  is 
practically  ubiquitous,  and  is  troublesome  in  both 
arable  and  grass  land. 

Curled  Dock  (Rumex  crispus  L.)  may  also  be  de- 
scribed as  ubiquitous.  The  stem  is  branched  and  i  to 
3  feet  high,  and  there  is  a  fleshy  tap-root.  It  much 
resembles  R.  obtusifolius,  but  the  leaves  are  narrower, 
lanceolate,  and  more  waved  or  crisped  along  the  edges. 
The  small  reddish  or  greenish  flowers  are  in  crowded 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  58.— Curled  Dock  (Rumex  crispus  L.) :  note  the  rootstock,  right-hand 
portion  of  which  has  been  broken  off. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        203 

whorls  in  erect,  branched  panicles  (Fig.  58),  and  the 
brown,  triangular  fruit  is  surrounded  by  fruiting  sepals, 
which  have  entire  or  only  slightly  toothed  margins. 
Flowering  is  continued  longer  than  in  the  last  species, 
namely,  from  June  to  October.  In  connection  with 


Photo,  1909. 


FIG.  59.— Seedlings  of  Dock  (Ruinex  sp.). 


H.  C.  Long. 


arable  land  it  is  important  to   note  the  appearance  of 
the  seedling  Dock  (Fig.  59). 

Several  other  species  (R.  pratensis  L.,  R.  sanguineus 
L.,  and,  in  damp  grass  land,  R.  aquaticus  L.)  may  prove 
harmful  and  a  nuisance  both  on  arable  and  grass  land. 
Docks  are  common  to  almost  all  soils,  and  are  not 
easily  got  rid  of.  They  are  unfortunately  able  to 
produce  adventitious  buds  on  almost  any  part  of  the 
root  which  may  be  severed  from  the  crown  ;  hence  if 


204  COMMON    WEEDS 

the  flowering  stem  and  crown  be  removed  the  part 
remaining  in  the  soil  will  quickly  give  rise  to  a  new 
stem,  while  the  part  removed  may,  if  left  lying  on  the 
ground,  live  and  produce  flowers  and  seed.  The  seeds 
are  too  commonly  found  in  grass  and  clover  seed 
samples;  and  Mr.  Martin  ].  Sutton  says1  that  "com- 
paratively few  samples  of  clover  harvested  in  this 
country  are  entirely  free  from  Dock  seed,  but  it  is 
true  economy  to  ensure  a  pure  sample." 

Wherever  Docks  occur  in  grass  land  they  should  be 
removed  with  the  docking  iron  when  the  ground  is  soft, 
although  the  fleshy  roots  are  so  deeply  seated  that  it  is 
nearly  impossible  to  lift  them  completely.  They  may 
also  be  reduced  by  regular  spudding  every  time  they 
show  signs  of  renewed  vitality  ;  the  operation  should 
always  be  carried  out  before  flowering  is  advanced. 
Every  portion  removed  should  be  burnt,  and  not  care- 
lessly thrown  in  the  hedge  or  ditch  as  is  frequently 
done,  for  such  pieces  may  take  root  in  damp  places, 
produce  adventitious  buds,  and  then  flower  and  seed. 
When  a  Dock  has  been  cut  off  near  or  below  the  crown 
a  pinch  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  placed  on  the  cut 
surface  generally  kills  the  root.  (As  regards  Docks 
on  arable  land,  see  p.  118.) 

Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acctosella  L.)  is  a  slender 
perennial  6  to  20  inches  high,  with  an  extensively  creep- 
ing rootstock  (Fig.  60).  It  has  a  smooth  branched 
stem,  and  hastate  or  somewhat  arrow-head  shaped 
radical  leaves  borne  on  long  stalks,  the  upper  or  stem 
leaves  being  sessile  and  narrowly  lanceolate  or  linear. 
The  small  male  and  female  flowers  are  borne  on 
separate  plants  in  branched,  leafless  panicles  of  several 
inches  in  length,  appearing  from  May  to  August.  In 
late  summer  and  autumn  Sheep's  Sorrel  becomes  of  a 

1  Permanent  and  Temporary  Pastures*  1908. 


Photo,  1909. 


/.  C.   Varty-Smith. 
FIG.  60.  — Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rutnex  Acetosella  L. ). 


206  COMMON    WEEDS 

beautiful  reddish  colour.  The  fruits  are  triangular  and 
yellowish-brown,  and  occur  as  common  impurities  in 
badly  cleaned  samples  of  clover  and  grass  seeds.  The 
plant  has  an  acid  taste,  due  to  acid  oxalates,  and  has 
been  accused  of  poisoning  live  stock.  (See  p.  308.) 

Sheep's  Sorrel  is  an  undesirable  plant  in  grass  land, 
and  should  be  got  rid  of.  It  is  typically  a  weed  of 
poor  dry  pastures,  and  is  regarded  as  a  sign  of  sour 
land.  It  is  very  common  in  meadows,  and  occurs 
also  on  arable  land.  Hall  states 1  that  in  arable  land 
the  presence  of  this  plant  is  a  pretty  sure  sign  of  the 
absence  of  lime.  The  best  way  to  reduce  it  is  by 
improving  the  condition  of  the  land  ;  to  this  end 
systematic  manuring  should  be  practised,  and  an 
application  of  lime  made  at  the  rate  of  i  ton  per 
acre  on  light  land,  or  up  to  2  tons  per  acre  on  heavy 
or  wet  land.  On  heavy  land  basic  slag  will  be  useful, 
both  on  account  of  the  lime  which  it  contains  and  the 
encouragement  it  gives  to  the  growth  of  clovers. 

Common  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosa  L.)  is  larger  than 
Sheep's  Sorrel.  It  has  a  slender,  simple  stem,  i  to  2  feet 
high,  with  larger  leaves  on  longer  stalks  than  those  of 
R.  Acetosella ;  the  rootstock  does  not  creep  below 
ground  as  in  the  latter  species,  but  is  a  slender  tufted 
tap-root.  The  small  flowers  open  in  May  to  August, 
the  male  and  female  ones  being  on  separate  plants  in 
branched,  leafless  panicles.  This  plant  is  also  known 
as  Sourock  or  Sour  Dock,  and  the  leaves  are  eaten  by 
children  on  account  of  their  pleasantly  acid  taste  :  the 
practice  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  occurs  in  most 
meadows,  sometimes  in  great  quantity,  but  is  of  no 
value.  If  in  small  quantity  only  it  may  be  spudded 
or  regularly  cut  down,  but  if  in  quantity  it  should  be 
mown  early.  It  was  found  at  Rothamsted  (see  p.  147) 

1  A.  D.  Hall,  Fertilisers  and  Manures,  1909. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        207 

that  Sorrel  was  much  decreased  by  an  application  of 
lime.  Dressings  of  mineral  manures  weaken  Sorrel, 
and  also  encourage  better  herbage  to  choke  out  the 
weed.  Manurial  treatment,  however,  should  be  prac- 
tised in  conjunction  with  regular  cutting. 

URTICACE.E 

The  Great  (Stinging)  Nettle  (Urtica  dioica  L.)  is 
frequently  a  serious  pest  in  certain  parts  of  grass  fields, 
but  usually  only  in 
patches.  It  is  a  hairy 
perennial,  2  to  4  feet  or 
more  in  height,  with 
large,  heart-shaped  ser- 
rated and  pointed  leaves 
placed  opposite  one 
another  in  pairs  on  the 
stem,  and  covered  with 
stinging  hairs.  The 
flowers  are  borne  in  long 
clusters  or  panicles  (Fig. 
61)  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves.  It  quickly  in- 
vades adjacent  soil  by 
means  of  its  extensively 
creeping  underground 

FIG.  61.— Stinging  Nettle  (Urtica  dioica 
Stems.      It  grows  O11  most  L.),  x§,  with  flower  enlarged. 

kinds  of  soil  and  in  al- 
most any  position,  but  thrives  best  on  good  land,  such 
as  well  manured  gardens  and  paddocks. 

Nettles  may  be  best  destroyed  by  digging  them  out 
by  hand  and  burning  them,  but  on  large  areas  this  is 
impracticable,  and  regular  mowing  must  be  resorted 
to,  the  successive  cuttings  taking  place  as  soon  as  the 


208  COMMON    WEEDS 

shoots  attain  6  inches  to  a  foot  in  height.  A  liberal 
dressing  of  salt  should  be  given  when  the  Nettles  are 
first  cut  down  in  spring.  The  use  of  tarred  paper  in 
the  manner  referred  to  at  p.  41  may  also  be  useful  on 
small  areas. 

CANNABACE.E 

Wild  Hop  (Humulus  Lupulus  L.)  is  a  perennial 
which  occurs  in  many  parts  of  the  country  in  hedges 
and  bushy  places,  and  may  occasionally  cause  harm 
by  climbing  among  corn  crops  or  grass  laid  up  for 
mowing.  The  stems  and  leaves  are  rough,  with  strong 
hooked  hairs  which  enable  the  plant  to  cling  to  a 
support,  thus  aiding  the  climbing  or  twining  habit. 
The  seeds  are  easily  distributed  by  the  wind  in  autumn, 
and  young  plants  appear  in  the  next  spring.  Although 
the  Hop  appears  to  be  indigenous  in  Britain,  many  of 
the  so-called  Wild  Hops  are  probably  escapes  from 
cultivation. 

Where  the  Hop  is  found  to  be  a  nuisance  much  may 
be  done  to  prevent  trouble  in  the  future  by  regular 
trimming  of  hedgerows  and  ditches,  so  cutting  off  the 
plants  at  the  base  and  preventing  seeding. 

OKCHIDACE^: 

The  Purple  Orchis  (Orchis  masmla  L.)  and  the 
Spotted  Orchis  (O.  maculata  L.)  are  frequently  very 
plentiful  in  grass  land. 

The  Purple  Orchis  is  a  foot  or  more  in  height,  has 
elliptic-lanceolate  leaves  usually  spotted  with  purple- 
black,  and  somewhat  spotted  reddish-purple  flowers 
in  lax  spikes  ;  the  tubers  are  ovoid. 

The  Spotted  Orchis  is  also  about  a  foot  high,  and 
the  leaves  are  narrow  oblong-lanceolate,  and  generally 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        209 

bear  a  number  of  dark  squarish  spots.  The  flowers 
are  pale  purple  marked  with  dark  lines  and  spots, 
and  in  dense,  somewhat  pyramidal,  spikes  ;  the  tuber 
has  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  hand.  The  former 
species  occurs  on  many  kinds  of  soil,  and  especially  on 
sterile  clays  (Buckman)  ;  the  latter  in  damp  meadows. 
In  the  case  of  O.  mascula  a  general  improvement  in  the 
herbage  will  reduce  it,  while  for  a  reduction  of  O. 
maculata  drainage  may  be  necessary. 


LILIACE.E 

Crow  Garlic  or  Wild  Onion  (Allium  vineale  L.)  is  one 
of  the  most  troublesome  of  weeds,  and  very  difficult  to 
eradicate.  In  the  young  stage  from  early  winter  until 
late  spring  it  closely  resembles  a  young  onion  (Fig. 
62),  with  round,  hollow,  pointed  leaves.  The  globose 
heads  of  reddish  flowers  are  produced  in  summer. 
The  flowering  heads  also  produce  "  bulbils,"  or  small, 
fleshy  bodies  which  effectively  reproduce  the  Wild 
Onion.  Allium  vineale  is  therefore  reproduced  in  three 
ways  :  by  seed,  by  bulbils,  and  by  the  "  splitting "  of 
the  parent  bulbs. 

This  pest  occurs  both  in  arable  and  grass  land.  In 
the  latter  position  it  usurps  the  place  of  better  herbage, 
and  is  otherwise  very  harmful  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  it  taints  the  milk  of  cows  which  may  be  at  pasture, 
and  also  the  butter  which  is  produced  from  such  milk. 
On  a  dairy  farm,  indeed,  a  pasture  may  be  rendered 
almost  useless  for  milking  cows  owing  to  the  Wild 
Onion.  It  may  be  reduced  by  spraying  with  a  5  per 
cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.1  If  only  in  small  areas, 
the  bulbs  may  be  dug  up  and  picked  out  by  hand. 
Sutton  says  that  the  onion-like  leaves  appear  to  be 

1  Jour.  Roy.  Agiic.  Soc.,  1 900,  1901,  and  1902. 

O 


210 


COMMON    WEEDS 


very   tempting    to    milch    cows,    and    that    "  persistent 
hand  pulling  of  the  bulbous  roots  early  in  the  year  is 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  62. — Wild  Onion  (Allium  vineale  L.),  in  young  state— taken  from 
wheat  in  December,  1908. 


the   only   way    of    ridding    pastures    of 
The  Wobtirn  experiments  showed  that  ' 


Crow   Garlic." 
when  the  stem 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        211 

is  thrown  up  it  is  almost  impossible  to  pull  the  stem 
and  bulb  up  together.  But,  as  the  season  advances, 
the  bulb  seems  to  work  up  to  the  surface,  and  about 
June  it  is  quite  easy  to  pull  up  stem  and  bulb  together." 

The  presence  of  the  Wild  Onion  in  excessive  quantity 
over  a  small  area  may  render  it  advisable  to  pare  and 
burn  the  surface  soil  containing  the  bulbs,  and  then 
re-seed  the  patches.  (See  also  p.  125.) 

Ramsons  or  Broad-leaved  Garlic  (Allium  ursinum  L.) 
is  a  fairly  common  plant  in  woods,  moist  shady  places, 
and  by  the  sides  of  streams.  It  is  i  to  2  feet  high, 
with  large,  flat,  broad  leaves,  resembling  those  of  the 
lily-of-the-valley.  The  stems  are  triangular,  and  bear 
a  flat-topped  umbel  of  white  flowers,  which  appear  in 
May  and  June.  If  crushed,  the  whole  plant  emits  a 
strong  characteristic  smell  of  garlic.  Ramsons  is 
chiefly  troublesome  where  milch  cows  may  eat  it,  as 
they  frequently  do,  when  the  offensive  odour  and  taste 
characteristic  of  the  plant  is  communicated  to  the  milk 
and  the  dairy  produce  prepared  from  it.  Where  cattle 
may  get  at  it  this  weed  should  be  cut  down  or  the 
bulbs  dug  out. 

JUNCACE^: 

The  Common  Rushes,  Juncus  effusus  L.,  J.  glaucus 
Sibth.,  /.  conglomerates  L.,  and  some  other  species,  are 
very  plentiful  in  water  meadows,  damp  meadows  by 
streams  and  rivers,  and  similar  situations.  They  are 
in  general  perennial  plants,  with  an  extensive  and 
deep-seated  creeping  rootstock,  erect,  simple,  pointed 
stems  containing  pith,  and  leaves  which  may  be  slender 
and  flat  or  round,  resembling  the  stem.  The  flowers 
are  brownish  or  green,  somewhat  star-like,  and  in 
axillary  or  terminal  cymes  or  clusters. 

Rushes   generally   occur    in    damp    soils,   and    even 


212  COMMON    WEEDS 

when  the  surface  appears  fairly  dry  their  presence 
indicates  a  wet  subsoil,  possibly  some  feet  down. 
The  only  plan  for  getting  rid  of  Rushes  is  thorough 
drainage,  but  they  may  be  much  reduced  by  frequent 
close  mowing.  Draining  and  cutting  in  conjunction 
with  liming  and  manuring  will  destroy  them. 


FIG.  63.— Wood-rush  (Luzula  campestris  Willd.),  x§. 

Wood    Rushes. — The     genus    Luzula     includes     a 
number   of    species   of   plants  belonging   to  the  order 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        213 

Juncacece,  spoken  of  generally  as  Wood  Rushes  on 
account  of  their  occurring  frequently  in  thickets, 
woods,  and  shady  places.  Some  of  them,  however, 
are  found  on  poor  open  pastures  and  heaths.  One  of 
the  latter  type  is  Luzula  campestris  Willd.,  a  small  grass- 
like  plant  (Fig.  63),  which  is  common  on  dry  meadows 
and  pastures  on  almost  all  soils.  (A  tall  sub-species  of 
this  plant  (L.  multiflora  Lej.)  is  common  on  wet  pastures.) 
It  is  a  perennial  spread  by  means  of  both  seeds  and  a 
creeping  rootstock  ;  it  grows  from  4  to  12  inches 
high,  and  has  flat,  hairy,  grass-like  leaves — the  long 
whitish  hairs  being  very  prominent — and  dense  clusters 
of  small  pale  or  dark  star-like"  flowers. 

Where  very  plentiful,  a  general  improvement  in  the 
herbage  by  manuring,  or  by  drainage  in  the  case  of  Z.. 
multiflora,  is  necessary  to  check  Wood  Rushes. 

CYPERACE^: 

Common  Cotton  Grass  (Eriophorum  anguslifolium 
Roth.)  and  Hare's-tail  Cotton  Grass  (E.  vaginatum  L.) 
are  perennial  plants  common  on  moors,  bogs,  and 
water  meadows,  being  sometimes  troublesome  in  the 
last-named  position.  The  former  species  is  about 
i  foot  high,  and  has  solitary  solid  stems  and  terminal 
clusters  of  flowers,  the  inner  clusters  being  sessile  and 
the  outer  on  slender  stalks.  The  flowers  appear  in 
May  and  June.  Hare's-tail  Cotton  Grass  is  somewhat 
similar,  with  many  tufted  stems  and  solitary  terminal 
spikelets,  which  flower  in  April  and  May.  In  both 
species  the  floral  envelope  is  formed  of  many  iong 
cottony  hairs,  the  clusters  when  ripe  appearing  as  a 
dense  cottony  tuft  or  head,  i  to  2  inches  long  and 
i  inch  in  diameter.  The  "  cotton "  is  sometimes 
collected  and  used  for  stuffing  pillows. 


2i4  COMMON    WEEDS 

The  Cotton  Grasses  may  be  reduced  by  cutting  and 
by  thorough  drainage. 

Sedges. — In  general,  Sedges  somewhat  resemble 
grasses,  both  in  the  leaves  and  spikelets.  A  large 
number  of  species  are  known  ;  they  vary  widely  in 
their  habitat,  some  favouring  the  driest  soils  and  others 
the  wettest. 

Common  Sedge  (Carex  vulgaris  Fries.)  and  other 
species  of  Carex  are  common,  useless  plants  of  damp 
meadows  and  pastures,  water  meadows,  and  by  the 
sides  of  ditches  and  rivers.  The  Common  Sedge  (Fig. 
64)  is  a  perennial,  with  narrow  erect  leaves,  and  a 
rough,  slender,  stiff  stem  i  to  2  feet  high.  The  spike- 
lets  are  sessile,  from  J  to  i  inch  in  length,  and  placed 
three  to  five  together  on  the  axis  or  stem.  The  root- 
stock  often  creeps  extensively. 

On  wet  soils  Sedges  may  be  reduced  by  draining, 
regular  mowing,  and  the  use  of  lime  and  manures. 

Sedges  of  other  species  (e.g.  Carex  prcecox  Jacq.)  occur 
on  dry  pastures  and  moors,  and  may  have  a  tufted  or 
creeping  rootstock.  They  more  or  less  resemble  the 
foregoing  species.  Several  kinds  with  bluish -green 
leaves,  resembling  those  of  the  carnation,  are  termed 
"  Carnation-grasses "  by  farmers.  On  dry  pastures 
Sedges  should  be  cut  with  regularity,  and  the  herbage 
should  be  improved  by  manurial  treatment. 

GRAMINE^: 

A  large  number  of  grasses  must  be  regarded  as 
weeds,  many  of  them,  such  as  Couch,  Fine  Bent,  and 
Wild  Oat,  being  directly  troublesome  in  arable  farm- 
ing ;  while  a  large  number  are  worthless  members  of 
meadows  and  pastures,  replacing  better  herbage,  and 
being  avoided  by  stock  when  richer,  more  succulent 


Photo,  1909. 


/.  C.  V 'arty -Smith. 


FIG.  64.  — Common  Sedge  (Carex  vulgaris  Fries.). 


2l6 


COMMON    WEEDS 


food  is  available.  All 
such  useless  or  harmful 
grasses  should,  where 
possible, be  reduced, and 
an  effort  made  to  im- 
prove pastures  and 
meadows,  so  that  they 
yield  the  maximum  of 
good  herbage. 

Mat- weed  (Nardus 
strida  L.),  also  known 
as  Mat-grass,  is  a  small 
perennial  only  a  few 
inches  high,  with  densely 
tufted  slender  leaves  and 
creeping  rootstock,  an 
erect  wiry  stem  and 
solitary  spikes,  with  all 
the  spikelets  on  one  side 
(Fig.  65).  Flowering 
occurs  in  June  and  July. 
This  grass  is  common 
upon  heaths  and  dry 
upland  pastures,  and  on 
account  of  its  hard,  wiry 
character  is  refused  by 
sheep. 

Floating  Foxtail (Alo- 
pecurus  geniculatiis  L.)  is 
occasionally  trouble- 
some on  damp  and  wet 
meadows  and  in  ditches 
and  ponds,  growing  so 
freely  that  shallow 
ponds  may  almost  be  filled  up  by  it.  It  is  a  smooth 


FIG.  65. — Mat-grass  (Nardus  stricta  L.), 
nat.  size,  with  enlarged  spikelet. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        217 

perennial,  flowering  between  May  and  August,  i  to  2  feet 

high,  with  a  procumbent  stem,  which  takes  root  at  the 

nodes,    thus    covering    the 

ground  very  rapidly.     The 

panicle  is  more  slender  than 

that    of    common    Meadow 

Foxtail  (A.  pratensis  L.),  one 

of    the    best    meadow    and 

pasture  grasses. 

Draining  will  reduce  this 
grass,  and  when  it  en- 
croaches upon  ponds  it  may 
be  necessary  to  drain  off 
the  water  and  clear  out 
the  weed,  giving  one  good 
dressing  of  salt,  and  if  need 
be  a  second  dressing,  killing 
out  the  weed  before  per- 
mitting the  pond  to  refill. 

Marsh  Bent  -  grass  or 
Florin  (Agrostis  alba  L.)  is 
a  very  variable  perennial 
occurring  on  most  soils  both 
in  arable  and  grass  land, 
often  replacing  good  grasses 
in  the  latter  case.  It  is  i 
to  2  feet  high,  with  or  with- 
out stolons,  and  the  stem 
more  or  less  prostrate  be- 
low. The  panicles  (Fig.  66), 
flowering  in  July  to  Sep- 
tember, vary  considerably  FlG'  66'~^Viba 
in  size,  being  2  to  8  inches 
long ;  the  spikelets  are  very  small,  and  when  the  seeds 
are  ripe  the  branches  of  the  panicle  lie  close  to  the 


218  COMMON    WEEDS 

main  axis  or  stem.  The  stoloniferous  plant  is  often 
confounded  with  true  "  Couch,"  and,  like  A.  vulgaris 
(below),  is  commonly  included  in  the  term  «  couch," 
"  twitch,"  or  "  squitch." 

The  grass  more  generally  known  as  Florin  is  Creep- 
ing Bent-grass,  a  variety  named  Agrostis  stolomfera 
Koch,  closely  resembling  A.  atba,  but  with  more  pro- 
nounced stolons,  rooting  at  the  nodes  of  the  procumbent 
stems  and  rapidly  spreading.  On  moist  soils,  wet 
meadows,  and  near  rivers,  it  quickly  crowds  out  other 
grasses.  This  grass  is  sometimes  recommended  as  a 
useful  species  in  moist  mountainous  districts,  especially 
on  account  of  its  late  growth  in  autumn,  but  as  it  may 
crowd  out  other  species,  and  the  seed  is  difficult  to 
obtain  pure,  it  should  in  general  be  avoided.  It  may 
sometimes  be  useful  in  a  pasture,  but  is  objectionable 
in  the  hay-field. 

Fine  Bent-grass  or  Black  Couch  (Agrostis  vulgaris 
With.)  closely  resembles  the  species  already  described, 
but  the  branches  of  the  fruiting  panicle  are  spreading. 
It  is  quite  as  useless  as  A.  alba,  and  owing  to  its 
creeping  stems  is  nearly  as  troublesome  as  true  Couch 
in  arable  land.  (See  p.  132.) 

Brown  Bent-grass  {Agrostis  canina  L.)  grows  on 
wet  peaty  soils  and  heaths.  It  differs  from  the  three 
grasses  mentioned  above  in  having  an  awn  on  the 
flowering  glume. 

In  grass  land  the  Bent-grasses  are  only  reduced  by 
constant  manuring  and  good  management,  and  the 
application  of  lime  (see  p.  149).  (As  regards  arable 
land,  see  p.  128.) 

Wavy  Hair-grass  {Air a  flexuosa  L.)  often  occurs 
abundantly  on  dry  pastures  and  sandy  heaths.  It  is 
an  erect,  slender  perennial  of  about  i  to  2  feet  high, 
with  short,  narrow,  curved  leaves.  The  panicles  of 


_ d 

Photo,  1909.  /.  C.  Varty-Sntith. 

FIG.  67. — Tufted  Hair-grass  (,4mz  ccespitosa  L.). 


220  COMMON    WEEDS 

shiny  brownish-green  or  purplish  spikelets  are  2  to  5 
inches  long,  and  the  branches  wavy  or  flexuous.  The 
flowering  glumes  are  awned.  Flowering  takes  place 
between  June  and  August.  The  "  seeds  "  were  formerly 
used  to  adulterate  those  of  Golden  Oat-grass. 

Tufted  Hair-grass  (Aim  ccespitosa  L.)  is  a  perennial 
commonly  known  as  Tussac  or  Tussock  grass,  or 
Hassock  grass,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  grows  in  dense 
close  tufts  which  stand  out  as  hummocks  among  the 
surrounding  herbage.  This  grass  (Fig.  67)  occurs 
chiefly  in  damp  pastures  and  meadows  and  in  woods. 
It  grows  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  with  erect,  stout, 
leafy  stems,  flat  rough  leaves  which  cut  like  razors, 
and  nodding  panicles  with  flexuous  branches  of  spikelets 
resembling  those  of  A.  flexuosa,  but  with  a  shorter  awn 
to  the  flowering  glume.  It  flowers  in  June  and  July. 
This  grass  is  seldom  touched  by  cattle.  In  some  dis- 
tricts the  tufts  are  named  "bull  faces"  or  "bull 
pates."  l 

Tufted  Hair-grass  may  be  reduced  by  draining  and 
manuring.  The  tufts  should  be  dug  up,  and  left  to 
wither  or  be  thrown  upon  the  compost  heap.  More 
commonly  the  hassocks  are  chopped  out  with  an  adze. 
This  grass  is  also  reduced  by  the  use  of  lime. 

Yorkshire  Fog"  (Holcus  hnatus  L.)  is  one  of  the  most 
common  and  widely  distributed  of  grasses.  It  is  re- 
produced freely  and  rapidly  from  seed,  and  occurs 
plentifully  in  meadows  and  pastures,  water  meadows 
and  inferior  hay-fields  on  many  soils,  perhaps  especi- 
ally on  calcareous  loams.  Yorkshire  Fog  (Fig.  68)  is 
a  densely  tufted  perennial,  i  to  2  feet  high,  and  covered 
with  soft  woolly  down  or  hairs.  The  slender  stems  are 
upright  and  leafy,  the  leaves  flat  and  soft.  The  panicle 
is  branched,  2  to  5  inches  long,  and  in  the  early  stages 

1   The  Complete  Grazier. 


Photo,  1909.  /.  C.  Varty-Smith. 

FIG.  68.— Yorkshire  Fog  (Holcus  lanatus  L.). 


222  COMMON    WEEDS 

somewhat  compact,  opening  widely  when  in  full  flower 
(June  to  July)  ;  the  spikelets  are  much  flattened  and 
two-flowered,  the  upper  flower  being  male  and  the  lower 
bisexual.  The  colour  of  the  panicles  of  Yorkshire  Fog 
is  very  variable,  many  shades  of  green,  pink,  and  purple 
being  common,  the  whole  blending  so  characteristically 
in  infested  pastures  as  to  give  rise  to  the  name  "  Fog," 
such  pastures  being  termed  "  Fogged  "  or  "  Foggy." 

Yorkshire  Fog,  like  other  hairy  grasses,  is  generally 
refused  by  stock.  It  should  be  discouraged  and  re- 
duced in  favour  of  better  grasses,  or  its  introduction 
prevented.  This  may  be  carried  out  :  (i)  By  consistent 
manuring,  as  the  pest  is  less  plentiful  in  rich  pastures  ; 
(2)  by  preventing  seeding,  by  running  the  mower  over 
infested  pastures  with  the  knives  set  high  to  take  off 
only  the  weed,  which  is  generally  well  above  the  pasture 
grass  in  June  ;  and  (3)  by  preventing  the  introduction 
of  the  tl  seeds  "  in  grass  mixtures  for  sowing,  either  for 
leys  or  permanent  pasture.  On  damp  land  Yorkshire 
Fog  is  less  hairy,  and  is  readily  eaten  by  cattle,  which 
thrive  upon  it.  Some  good  pastures  in  Norfolk  and  in 
Holland  consist  largely  of  this  grass. 

Creeping  Soft  Grass  (Holcus  mollis  L.)  much  re- 
sembles the  last  species,  but  is  much  less  common, 
being  usually  found  in  hedges,  thickets,  and  shady 
places.  It  is  sometimes  met  with  in  the  open  pastures 
on  poor  sandy  soils.  In  contrast  with  H.  lanatus, 
which  has  tufted  fibrous  roots,  the  Creeping  Soft  Grass 
has  an  extensive  creeping  rootstock  ;  it  is  not  so  hairy, 
except  at  the  nodes  of  the  stem. 

Quaking  Grass  (Briza  media  L.)  is  one  of  the  best 
known  perennial  grasses,  and  frequently  gathered  for 
decorative  purposes.  Its  loose  spreading  panicles  of 
spikelets,  variegated  with  purple  and  green,  appear  to 
be  always  moving  or  trembling — hence  the  names 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        223 

Quaking,  Toddling,  or  Totter  Grass.  This  grass  has 
solitary,  upright  stems  i  to  i^  feet  high,  creeping 
below.  Flowering  takes  place  in  June.  Quaking 
Grass  is  a  typical  weed  of  poor  pastures  and  meadows 
on  light  dry  soils,  and  is  a  useless  constituent  of  the 
herbage.  Where  it  is  abundant  or  even  moderately 
plentiful,  good  dressings  of  manure  should  be  applied 
to  the  land. 

Soft  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  mollis  L.)  is  an  annual 
or  biennial  weed,  which  is  frequently  very  plentiful  in 
meadows  and  leys,  in  water  meadows,  and  by  road- 
sides, but  is  not  often  found  in  old  pastures.  It  is  a 
handsome  grass  (Fig.  69),  with  beautiful  lance-shaped 
downy  spikelets  containing  five  or  more  flowers,  each 
flowering  glume  being  awned.  This  grass  flowers:  early, 
between  May  and  June,  and  its  seeds,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  propagated,  are  shed  in  the  hay-field  by  June. 
Soft  Brome  Grass  is  useless  to  stock,  and  replaces  better 
grasses.  In  meadows  it  may  be  reduced  by  early 
mowing  for  two  or  three  years  to  cut  it  before  seeding 
takes  place,  and  it  is  reduced  in  pastures  by  a  dressing 
of  mixed  nitrogenous  and  mineral  manures. 

Sterile  or  Barren  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  sterilis  L.) 
is  an  erect  annual,  about  2  feet  high,  with  narrow 
leaves,  and  very  large  open  nodding  panicles  with 
drooping  branches  ;  the  spikelets,  at  the  end  of  long  • 
slender  pedicels,  are  about  i  inch  in  length,  slender 
awns  adding  perhaps  another  inch.  This  grass  is 
common  by  roadsides,  fences  and  hedges,  in  fields  and 
waste  places.  Cutting  before  seeding  in  June  and  July 
will  reduce  it  where  troublesome. 

Meadow  Barley  Grass  (Hordeum  pratense  Huds.)  is 
a  perennial  with  slender  stems  i  to  2  feet  high,  and 
having  a  general  resemblance  to  a  diminutive  specimen 
of  ordinary  barley.  The  spikes  are  i  to  3  inches  long, 


Photo,  1909.  /.  C.  Varty-Smith. 

FIG.  69. — Soft  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  mollis  L. ). 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        225 

nearly  half  an  inch  broad,  and  yellow-green  in  colour, 
and  the  spikelets  rough  and  awned.     The  rootstock  is 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  70. — Wall  Barley  Grass  (Hordeum  murinum  L. ). 

creeping.  Meadow  Barley  Grass  occurs  in  damp 
meadows  and  pastures,  but  is  not  often  abundant.  In 
pastures  it  is  sometimes  considered  useful  if  not  allowed 


226  COMMON    WEEDS 

to  flower,  but  the  rough  spikes  are  unpleasant,  and  may 
be  injurious  to  stock,  and  the  grass  is  therefore  objec- 
tionable in  meadows. 

Wall  Barley  Grass,  or  Waybent  (Hordeum  murinum 
L.)  is  an  annual  with  fibrous  roots  (Fig.  70),  and 
much  resembles  H.  pratense.  It  is  not  generally  trouble- 
some, but  is  often  plentiful  on  dry  soils  by  footpaths, 
roadsides,  and  waste  places.  Cutting  before  seeding 
will  reduce  it. 

FILICES 

Bracken  or  Brake  Fern  (Pteris  aquilina  L.),  often 
simply  termed  "  Fern,"  is  frequently  very  troublesome 
on  dry  upland  pastures  and  rough  grazing  land.  It  is 
especially  harmful  in  Scotland,  and  even  attempts  to 
usurp  many  good  grazings.  It  is  too  well  known  to 
need  much  description  here.  It  is  a  perennial,  which 
spreads  by  means  of  an  extensively  creeping  rootstock 
and  also  by  spores,  the  latter  being  scattered  in  July 
and  August.  Bracken  has  been  found  one  of  the  most 
difficult  pests  to  extirpate,  and  has  in  the  past  few  years 
given  rise  to  much  discussion.  The  following  means 
of  reducing  it  have  been  suggested : — 

(1)  "If  the  surface  of  the  ground  admits  of  it,  the 
best  method  of  dealing  with  Bracken  on  a  large  scale 
is  to  run  chain  harrows  over  the  ground  at  the  time  the 
fronds  are  making  their  appearance.     If  this  is  done 
thoroughly   and   persisted    in,   the    plants    are    greatly 
weakened." * 

(2)  Cutting  with  the  scythe  as  soon  as  the  Bracken 
is  well  grown,   say   early   in   June,   and  repeating  the 
process  for  several  years,  weakens   the   growth  of  the 
plants,  and  the  Bracken  gradually  diminishes  in  num- 
bers, but  the  plan  must  be  persisted  in,  for  "  to  drive 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  Sept.  1906,  p.  378. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        227 

this  usurper  from  our  hillsides  is  a  hard  task,  requiring 
men,  money,  time,  and  patience."  It  has  been  stated 
that  in  four  years'  time  Bracken  can  be  reduced  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  is  not  worth  cutting.  Beating 
down  the  tender  young  shoots  with  sticks  or  canes, 
thus  severely  bruising  them  rather  than  cutting  them 
clean  off,  has  been  recommended  in  place  of  cutting. 
Where  Bracken  grows  in  woods  a  proportion  of  it  is 
required  for  game  cover,  the  rest  being  cut  and  largely 
used  for  bedding  stock.  In  such  cases  there  is  little  or 
no  diminution  in  the  "  fern  "  year  by  year,  because  it 
is  rarely  cut  in  the  same  place  two  years  in  succession. 
In  some  districts  the  cutting  of  the  "fern"  is  jealously 
guarded  by  the  keepers,  who  regulate  the  cutting  to 
ensure  cover. 

(3)  Some  authorities,   especially  in  Scotland,  are  of 
opinion  that  close  grazing  with  cattle  tends  to  reduce 
Bracken,  the  animals  not  only  eating  it  when  young, 
but  trampling  it  down  or  lying  on  it.     There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  this  method  is  of  value,  and  cases  have 
been  quoted  which   appear  to  justify  the  belief.     On 
the  other  hand,  cases  to  the  contrary  are  also  quoted, 
in  which  grazing  with  cattle  has  had   no  appreciable 
effect  on  the  Bracken. 

(4)  In  cases  where  it  has  been  possible  to  practise 
it,    irrigation  with   spring  water   is  said  to  have  been 
adopted  for  clearing  ground  of  Bracken  with  complete 
success,  although  in  some  cases  it  has  been  a  failure. 

(5)  The  growth  of  Bracken  on  waste  land  is  perhaps 
a  certain  sign  of  the  absence  of  lime,  and  where  lime  is 
to  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  cost  an  application  of  i 
to  2  tons  per  acre  to  the  land  after  the  fern  has  been  cut 
will  very  greatly  reduce  it,  if  not  destroy  it  altogether. 

(6)  Bracken  may  be  eradicated  by  breaking  up  the 
land  and  cultivating  it. 


228 


COMMON    WEEDS 


Bracken  forms  an  excellent  litter  for  cattle,  horses, 
and  pigs,  and  has  been  found  quite  useful  on  occasion 
for  fodder.  It  has  also  been  successfully  converted 
into  silage,  and  has  a  high  manurial  value  when  used 
as  a  litter,  comparing  with  wheat  straw  as  150  to 


100. 


EQUISETACE^: 


Horse-tail  (Equisetum  arvense  L.),  known  also  under 
the    various    names    Mare's-tail,    Cat's-tail,    Toad-pipe, 


Photo,  1909. 


/.  C.  Varty-Smith. 


FIG.  71. — Horse-tail  (Equisetum  arvense  L.),  showing  barren  stems 
and  creeping  rootstock. 

Paddock-pipes,  is  a  common  and  serious  pest  of  both 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  Oct.  1908,  p.  487.  (See  also  Jour.  Board  of  Agric., 
Oct.  1908,  p.  481  ;  and  P'eb.  1909,  p.  844;  M'K.  in  The  Scottish  Farmer, 
Nov.  14,  1908;  Report  of  a  Lecture  by  Mr.  A  P.  M'Dougall,  ibid.,  Dec.  12, 
1908,  and  subsequent  correspondence  ;  J.  S.  in  The  Field,  Nov.  16,  1907.) 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        229 

arable  and  grass  land,  flourishing  most  on  damp  land. 
The  spore-bearing  or  fructifying  stout  stems,  with  club- 
shaped  heads,  resembling  young  asparagus,  appear  in 
April.  These  are  followed  from  May  onwards  by  erect 
or  decumbent  barren  leafy  stems  (Fig.  71),  with  simple 
branches  in  whorls,  and  ending  in  a  long,  naked  point. 
Horse-tail  has  extensively  creeping,  deep-lying  rhizomes, 
often  lying  several  feet  below  the  surface,  quite  out 
of  reach  of  plough,  cultivator,  or  spade.  The  plant 
is  refused  by  stock.  Another  species,  E.  palustre  L.,  is 
regarded  as  being  poisonous  to  cattle.  As  Horse-tail 
favours  damp  soils,  it  can  only  be  reduced  completely 
by  draining.  Ditches  should  be  kept  clean  and  clear  of 
weeds  to  allow  of  the  free  passage  of  water,  and  the  land 
should  be  limed.  (See  also  p.  136.)  Both  spore-bear- 
ing and  barren  stems  should  be  regularly  cut. 

Musci 

Mosses  (Hypmim,  Funaria,  Sphagnum,  &c.)  are  fre- 
quently troublesome  in  pastures,  and  are  an  indication 
that  the  land  is  damp  or  in  poor  condition.  The  general 
methods  recommended  for  the  eradication  of  Mosses 
are:  (i)  drainage,  followed  by  (2)  manurial  treat- 
ment, including  an  application  of  lime.  Before  manures 
are  applied  it  is  advisable  to  pass  the  harrows  over  the 
ground,  so  as  to  tear  out  much  of  the  Moss  and  loosen 
the  surface  soil  and  open  it  up  to  air,  light,  moisture, 
and  manures.  Mossy  pastures  on  heavy  clay  land 
should  receive  10  cwt.  of  lime  per  acre  and  6  cwt.  of  basic 
slag,  both  applied  in  autumn,  and  in  the  following  spring 
a  dressing  of  i  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  in  April 
or  May.  Lighter  lands  maybe  given  10  cwt.  lime  and 
2\  cwt.  of  kainit  per  acre  in  autumn,  3  to  5  cwt.  good 
superphosphate  in  March,  and  i  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda  in 
the  middle  of  April.  Combined  with  drainage  and  the 


230  COMMON    WEEDS 

use  of  the  harrow,  such  treatment  will  effect  a  great 
change  and  get  rid  of  most  of  the  Moss. 

Where  Moss  appears  on  pastures  and  meadows  which 
are  known  to  be  well  drained,  manurial  treatment  alone 
should  be  resorted  to.  In  the  case  of  temporary  pas- 
tures, subsoiling  will  prove  a  useful  measure  when  the 
next  arable  crop  is  taken.  Moss  seldom  appears  on 
arable  land,  but  if  so,  similar  remedial  measures  must 
be  followed. 

On  thin  pastures  resting  on  a  light  loam,  with  chalk 
not  many  inches  below,  at  the  South-Eastern  Agricul- 
tural College,  Wye,  Kent,  a  dense  growth  of  Moss 
appeared  in  winter,  though  there  was  no  sourness, 
deficient  aeration,  or  great  poverty  of  the  soil.  Experi- 
ments made1  to  discover  the  best  treatment  showed  that 
in  this  case  chemical  treatment  had  on  the  whole  little 
or  no  effect,  though  superphosphate  seemed  to  feed  the 
grass  a  little  and  keep  the  Moss  down.  On  the  other 
hand,  "the  effects  of  the  mechanical  treatment  are, 
however,  very  manifest ;  the  continual  rolling  has  been 
as  beneficial  as  the  opening  of  the  soil  has  been  harm- 
ful. Clearly,  the  prevalence  of  moss  on  this  class  of 
land  is  associated  with  the  open  texture  of  the  soil,  in 
which  the  worms  work  very  freely,  and  continually  lift 
the  surface  ;  constant  rolling  and  harrowing,  with  the 
treading  of  sheep,  are  the  only  ways  of  keeping  the 
moss  down." 

Some  experiments  have  been  carried  out  by  the  West 
of  Scotland  Agricultural  College2  on  mossy  land  which, 
after  being  drained,  reclaimed,  and  cropped,  had  lain  for 
ten  or  twelve  years  under  pasture,  and  the  grass  was 
poor  and  innutritious.  Three  plots  of  over  3  acres  each 

1  A.  D.  Hall,/<wr.  S.E.  Agric.  Coll.,  No.  9,  1900. 

2  "  Manuring   of  Moss   Land "  :    Report   of  a   Lecture   by  Professor   R. 
Patrick  Wright,  1909. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS    LAND        231 

were  set  aside  for  experiment,  one  being  untreated,  one 
receiving  10  cwt.  92  Ib.  of  basic  slag  per  acre,  and  the 
third  the  same  amount  of  basic  slag  and  8  cwt.  of 
kainit.  The  manures  were  applied  in  the  winter  of 
1903-4,  and  the  experiment  has  been  continued  since 
that  date.  Sheep  were  grazed  on  the  plots  for  twenty 
weeks  in  summer,  and  the  improvement  judged  by  the 
live-weight  increase  of  these ;  cattle  were  grazed  when 
necessary  to  eat  down  the  grass  left  by  the  sheep  on 
the  manured  plots.  The  general  results  are  as  follows  : 
— The  total  live-weight  increases  on  the  plots  in  the 
five  years  1904—8  were  258  Ib.  per  acre  on  the 
untreated  plot,  422  Ib.  on  the  basic  slag  plot,  and 
516  Ib.  on  the  basic  slag  and  kainit  plot.  Even  in 
the  fifth  year  the  manures  had  a  remarkable  effect, 
and  the  great  increase  on  the  treated  plots  over  the 
untreated  plots  is  conclusive  evidence  as  to  the  im- 
provement effected.  A  calculation  of  the  results  in  cash 
showed  that  the  slag  and  kainit  plot  has,  in  the  five 
years,  given  a  gross  return  per  acre  in  excess  of  the 
unmanured  plot  of  -£5,  8s.  6d.  per  acre,  or  deducting 
£it  1 8s.  6d.,  the  cost  of  the  manures,  a  net  profit  of 
.£3,  i os.  per  acre  in  the  five  years,  while  the  effects  of 
the  manures  were  evidently  not  yet  exhausted.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that  thirty-two  weeks 
of  the  year  were  not  considered,  the  experiment  being 
confined  to  twenty  weeks  in  the  summer  months,  and 
this  fact  makes  the  result  the  more  important. 

FUNGI 

Fairy  Ring's  frequently  occur  in  pastures,  and  are 
both  harmful  and  unsightly.  They  may  be  dealt  with 
as  described  at  p.  347. 


CHAPTER   VI 

WHAT  ARE  THE  WORST  WEEDS?  OPINIONS  OF 
AUTHORITIES  AS  TO  THE  TWELVE  WORST 
WEEDS  IN  VARIOUS  DISTRICTS 

THE  species  of  weeds  which  are  generally  troublesome 
differ  considerably  in  various  districts,  and  it  was 
thought  that  it  might  serve  a  useful  purpose  if  some 
attempt  were  made  to  ascertain,  more  or  less  approxi- 
mately, what  weeds  are  found  most  harmful  and  difficult 
to  combat  in  a  series  of  localities.  A  number  of  prac- 
tical agriculturists  were  therefore  asked  to  state  what 
they  considered  the  six  worst  weeds  of  arable  and 
grass  land  respectively  in  their  neighbourhood,  and 
what  were  the  means  best  suited  to  cope  with  them. 
The  replies  are  given  below  in  the  form  of  a  table,  and 
are  of  considerable  interest.  Most  of  the  common 
names  are  generally  known,  but  in  many  cases  the 
specific  names  have  been  given.  Further  informa- 
tion on  the  various  species  will  be  found  in  other 
chapters. 

In  the  table  the  returns  have  been  so  arranged  that 
they  commence  with  the  north  of  Scotland  and  end  at 
the  south  coast  of  England,  this  being  perhaps  a  better 
plan  than  that  of  taking  them  in  alphabetical  order. 
Ireland  is  unfortunately  not  included. 

An  analysis  of  the  replies  shows  that  in  twenty- 
nine  returns  referring  to  arable  land  the  species  in 

232 


TWELVE    WORST    WEEDS  233 

the  following  list  are  mentioned  the  stated  number  of 
times : — 

Couch  or  Twitch  i  .         ...        .        .  32 

Charlock  and  Runch       .        .        .        .        .  28 

Docks      .        .        .        .        .         .        ...  •      .  16 

Thistles  . 16 

Coltsfoot 13 

Chickweed 9 

Bindweeds 8 

Spurrey 7 

Poppies  and  Corn  Buttercup  ("Burrs"  or^\  ,  A 
"Scratch  Burrs")                                         )  each  6 

Wild  Oat 5 

Knotweed  and  Fat  Hen          .         .         .          each  4 

Redshank         3 

Groundsel,  Fumitory,  Corn  Marigold,  A /ofle-\  ^  ^ 

curus  agrestis,  Poa  attnua,  and  Nettles     ) 
Self-heal,    Herb    Gerard,    Hemp    Nettle^ 
Wild  Mint,  Mayweed,  Cleavers,  Horse- 
tail,   Speedwell,    Broom-rape,    Dodder, 


Pepperwort,  Wild  Carrot,  Yellow  Toad- 
flax, Shepherd's  Purse,  Annual  Knawel, 
Speedwell  ( V.  agrestis\  Mugwort,  Wart 
Cress  and  Thale  Cress 


each  i 


In  the  case  of  grass  land  an  analysis  shows  that  the 
following  species  are  the  worst  weeds  in  the  stated 
number  of  instances  : — 

Thistles 22 

Buttercups       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         16 

Holcus  lanatus  and  H.  mollis         ...  9 

Docks 8 

Daisy 7 

Plantain  ........  6 

Soft  Brome 6 

Yellow  Rattle,  Sorrels,  Dandelion,  Agrostis  \         , 

sp-  1  C 

Knapweed,  Rushes,  Nettles  .  .  .  each  4 
Ragwort,  Hassock  Grass,  Rest  Harrow  .  each  3 
Moss,  Self-heal,  Sedges,  Hawkweed(///'mz->v 

ciutri),  Bracken,  Mountain  Flax,  Scabious,  r  each  2 

Meadow  Saffron 

1  Including  Triticum  repens,  Agrostis  sp.,  and  Arrhenatherum  avenacewn, 
var.  bulbosum,  as  these  are  all  termed  Twitch,  Wicks,  Wickens,  Couch,  &c. 
Two  of  these  species  are,  however,  given  in  some  returns,  and  these  are 
included  in  the  figures  quoted. 


each  i 


234  COMMON    WEEDS 

Sweet  Vernal,  Rough-stalked  Meadow- 
grass,  Mouse-ear  Chickweed,  Couch, 
Ox-eye  Daisy,  Pig-nut  (Conopodium\ 
Cow  Parsley  (Petroselinum},  Meadow 
Barley-grass,  Cat's-ear,  Corn  Marigold, 
Stinking  Mayweed,  Wild  Carrot,  Cow- 
slip, Broom,  Gorse,  Dyer's  Green-weed, 
Silver- weed. 

Many  of  the  weeds  only  mentioned  once  or  twice 
may  prove  very  serious  pests,  and  the  fact  that  only 
one  or  two  farmers  named  in  the  list  have  found  them 
troublesome  is  sufficient  evidence  to  show  that  where 
they  occur  an  endeavour  should  be  made  to  keep  them 
down.  It  is  clear  that  the  methods  of  attacking  a  given 
weed  vary  somewhat  in  different  districts,  while  in  some 
cases  uncertainty  exists,  or  no  practical  plan  of  eradi- 
cation or  prevention  is  known  or  suggested.  The 
practical  notes  written  by  the  authorities  who  have 
supplied  the  returns  deserve  every  consideration. 


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CHAPTER   VII 

PARASITIC    PLANTS 

A  considerable  number  of  weeds  are  parasitic  or  semi- 
parasitic  in  character,  subsisting  wholly  or  in  part  upon 
the  food  material  elaborated  by  the  "  host "  plant  for 
its  own  use.  One  or  two  of  these  parasites  are  serious 
pests,  and  frequently  do  much  damage. 

CONVOLVULACE.E 

Dodder  (Cuscuta  sp.)  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome 
of  weed  pests  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  contend, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  damage  it  does  to  red  clover. 
Many  species  of  Dodder  are  harmful,  and  some  eighty 
species  are  known  to  science,  several  occurring  in 
Britain.  These  parasites  are  mostly  annuals,  growing 
from  seed  sown  with  farm  seeds  or  self-sown  in  a 
former  year,  and  they  subsist  on  plants  of  a  higher 
order. 

The  various  species  of  Dodder  closely  resemble  one 
another  in  their  life  history  and  manner  of  growth. 
The  seed  contains  a  simple,  thread-like  embryo  which 
is  coiled  spirally  round  the  fleshy  albumen,  and  the 
radicle  end  is  thickened.  A  damp  season  appears 
most  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  Dodder  seed, 
and  at  a  proper  temperature  the  seed  germinates  in 
five  to  eight  days.  The  thread-like  coil  gradually  un- 


PARASITIC    PLANTS  257 

winds  and  the  radicle  end  takes  root  in  the  soil,  but 
should  the  lengthening  stem  not  meet  with  a  suitable 
host  plant  the  seedling  dies.  Should  the  stem  reach 
a  host  plant  it  twines  itself  round  the  stem  of  the 
latter,  attaching  itself  firmly  by  means  of  suckers  or 
haustoria.  It  now  loses  its  connection  with  the  soil, 
and,  unless  checked,  extends  its  thread-like  stems  to 
neighbouring  plants,  rapidly  spreading  in  all  directions 
and  drawing  its  food  supplies  wholly  from  the  host 
plant.  Large  patches  may  in  this  way  be  rapidly 
overcome  by  the  Dodder,  the  host  plants  becoming 
strangled  and  exhausted. 

It  may  be  observed  that  Dodder  possesses  no  chloro- 
plasts,  and  is  unable  to  take  up  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  air  like  an  ordinary  green  plant,  but,  as  already 
stated,  draws  its  sustenance  from  the  ready-made 
products  which  it  absorbs  from  the  host  plant  by 
means  of  its  haustoria,  or  suckers. 

If  it  be  not  attacked  the  Dodder  spreads  quickly, 
produces  flowers  and  seeds,  and  the  soil  is  re-sown. 
Dodder  may  also  be  spread  by  small  fragments  of  the 
stems,  which  are  veritable  cuttings,  and  may  establish 
new  centres  of  infestation  by  attaching  themselves  to 
new  plants.  It  appears  also  that,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  Dodder  may  be  spread  by  means  of  little 
tubercles,  which  are  formed  in  winter,1  although  in 
general  the  pest  is  spread  by  seed,  and  chiefly,  perhaps, 
as  an  impurity  in  agricultural  seeds.  An  idea  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  Dodder  spreads  may  be  formed 
from  M.  Marre's  statement,  that  in  three  months  a 
single  stem  may  kill  all  the  clover  or  lucerne  plants 
on  an  area  of  28  square  metres  (say,  30  square  yards), 
and  so  complete  is  the  destruction  that  one  would  say 
a  fire  had  passed  over  the  spot. 

1  E.  Marre,  La  Lutte  contre  la  Citscitte. 

R 


258  COMMON    WEEDS 

The  seeds  of  Dodder  (Plate  II.,  Figs.  51  and  52)  are  in 
general  quite  small,  roundish,  and  angled.  Being,  with 
one  or  two  exceptions,  much  smaller  than  the  seeds  of 
red  clover,  they  are  easily  separated  by  seed-cleaning 
machinery.  Although  Dodder  seeds  may  be  recognised 
as  such  by  the  farmer,  the  species  can  only  be  identified 
by  the  expert,  and  then  not  invariably  perhaps.  In 
1905  no  less  than  n  per  cent  of  the  clover  seed 
samples  examined  by  the  Consulting  Botanist  (Mr.  W. 
Carruthers,  F.R.S.)  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
were  found  to  contain  Dodder  seeds,  two  samples  con- 
taining 6  per  cent.  In  1908  the  same  authority  called 
attention  to  "  the  difficulty  of  securing  the  seeds  of  any 
variety  of  red  clover  this  year  free  from  Dodder.  Last 
year's  harvest  of  seed  in  Britain  had  been  so  short  and 
unsatisfactory  that  the  market  had  had  to  be  supplied 
by  seed  imported  from  the  Continent  and  America,  and 
it  was  very  difficult  to  obtain  seed  free  from  Dodder. 
In  many  samples  that  had  been  examined  there  had 
been  as  much  as  1000  Dodder  seeds  in  a  pound  of 
clover  seed."  This  makes  it  abundantly  clear  that  the 
seeds  of  Dodder  must  be  very  commonly  sown  with 
clover  samples  in  Britain.  Dodder  is  similarly  a  pest 
in  the  Colonies  and  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  Russia,  Chile,  and 
other  countries. 

Cuscuta  Trifolii  Bab.,  generally  termed  Clover  Dodder, 
and  according  to  Hooker  a  variety  of  C.  Eptthynium,  is 
the  most  common  species  met  with  on  the  farm.  It 
is  leafless,  but  produces  numerous  clusters  of  minute 
white  bell-shaped  flowers  (Fig.  72).  Each  flower  gives 
rise  to  a  two-celled  capsule,  each  cell  containing  two 
minute  .seeds,  which  are  roundish,  dull  in  appearance, 
and  grey,  brown,  olive-brown,  or  yellowish-brown  in 
colour.  This  species  is  most  commonly  found  on 


PARASITIC    PLANTS 


259 


clover  and  lucerne  in  Great  Britain,  but,  according  to 
Frank  and  Marre,  it  has  been  found  on  a  large  num- 
ber  of    other   plants — e.g. 
vetches,   lupines,  potatoes, 
beet,    carrots,  fennel,   ani- 
seed. 

C.  Epithymum  Murr.  (C. 
minor  Lam.),  or  Lesser 
Dodder,  occurs  in  Britain 
from  Ayr  southwards.  The 
flowers  are  variable  in 
colour,  £  to  |  inch  in  dia- 
meter, and  open  in  July 
to  October.  The  reddish 
stems  are  very  slender. 
It  is  found  on  furze, 
thyme,  ling,  heaths.  The 
seeds  are  round-oval  in 
shape,  and  yellowish- 
brown  in  colour. 

C.     europcea     L.     is    not 

common  in  Britain,  but  FlG  ?2 :_clover  Dodder  (Cuscuta  Tri. 
occurs  on  vetches  and 
nettles,  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent on  hops,  hemp,  vetches,  potatoes,  sugar-beet, 
and  other  plants.  The  stems  are  reddish  or  yellow  in 
colour  and  as  thick  as  twine,  and  the  flowers,  tinged 
with  red,  appear  in  the  summer  months. 

C.  Epilinum  Weihe.,  or  Flax  Dodder,  chiefly  attacks 
flax,  occurring  sporadically  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
On  the  Continent  it  has  been  found  to  attack  hemp  and 
camelina.  It  is  paler  and  more  succulent  than  the  last 
species,  and  flowers  during  summer. 

C.  Gronovii  Willd.  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Europe  from  North  America.  Although  this 


folii  Bab. )  on  Red  Clover  ( Trifolium 
pratense),  x|,  with  flower  enlarged. 


260  COMMON    WEEDS 

species  probably  does  not  ripen  its  seeds  in  Britain, 
the  seeds  germinate  when  sown,  as  they  may  be,  with 
lucerne  seeds.  This  is  an  exceptional  species,  in  which 
the  seeds  are  larger  than  usual,  about  the  same  size 
as  those  of  lucerne,  and  hence  not  so  readily  sepa- 
rated from  the  latter  as  other  species  of  Dodder  seed. 
Potatoes,  beet,  and  chicory  are  stated  to  be  infested  by 
it,  in  addition  to  lucerne  and  other  leguminous  plants. 

Dodder  is  a  most  serious  pest,  and  the  utmost  pains 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  entry  to  the  farm  in  seed 
samples  for  sowing,  or  to  eradicate  it  if  unfortunately 
found  attacking  a  crop.  Several  means  may  be  noted 
by  which  it  may  be  combated  : — 

1.  Pure  seed,  absolutely  free  from   Dodder,  should 
be  insisted  on,  and  the  seed  merchant  should  be  asked 
for   a   guarantee   to   this    effect.     Should    a    doubt   be 
entertained   as   to   seeds   already  purchased,  a   sample 
should  be  submitted  to  an  expert  botanist  for  examina- 
tion, and    if    Dodder    be  found,  the  only  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  sift  the  seed  before  use,  shaking  it  thoroughly 
in  a  sieve  composed  of  a  2o-mesh  wire  screen  (No.  32 
English  gauge  round   wire).      With    a   wooden   frame 
12  inches   square   and  3   inches  deep  covered  by  such 
a  wire  screen  a  man  may  deal  with    5   to    10   bushels 
per  day,  shaking  J  Ib.  at   a  time  vigorously  for  half  a 
minute. 

2.  Should  a  patch  of  Dodder  be  found  on  a  clover 
crop  it  should  never  be  torn  out  with  a  rake,  as  this 
only  serves  to  break  up  the   Dodder  into  small  pieces 
and  distribute  it.     The  best  plan  is  to  cut  the  crop  and 
Dodder   together  with   a    scythe,   heap   the   whole   to- 
gether in  the  centre  of  the  patch,  cover  it  with  chaff, 
straw,  or  light  dry  rubbish,  and  burn  it  on  the  spot. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  cut  the  crop  well  beyond  the 
apparent  limit  of  the  Dodder,  as  it  is  better  to  sacrifice 


PARASITIC    PLANTS  261 

a  portion  of  the  crop  than  risk  infestation  another 
year.  Further,  the  whole  of  the  area  cut  over  should 
be  covered  several  inches  deep  with  chaff  and  burnt 
over. 

3.  It  is  recommended  by  Thaer  that  infested  spots 
be  surrounded  by  a  small  trench  beyond  the  outermost 
threads  of  Dodder,  the  soil  from  the  trench  being  used 
to  cover  the  patch. 

4.  A  somewhat  similar  plan  is  suggested  by  Frank  : 
covering  the  patch  with  a  layer  3  inches  deep  of  chaff, 
tan,  or  gypsum,  with  an  inch  or  so  of  fine  soil  on  the 
top,  the  whole  being  saturated  with  liquid  manure  or 
sprinkled   with   powdered   quicklime   in    winter.      Such 
a  method  usually  allows  the  clover  to  break  through 
the  covering,  but  the  Dodder  will  be  unable  to  do  so. 

5.  A  plan  which  appears  to  have  been  successfully 
practised l  consisted  in  "  removing  the   surface   of  the 
affected    spots    with    a    plate-spade    and    burning    the 
material  (earth,  Dodder,  &c.)  mixed  with  old  thatch  in 
the  centre  of  each   patch,  followed  by  burning  a  layer 
of  waste  straw  on  the  top  of  the  cleared  patches,  taking 
care  to  put  it  well  round  the  edge,  even  sacrificing  a 
portion  of  the  unaffected  crop  round  the  edge."     The 
cost  for  thus  treating  twenty-five   patches  three  to  six 
paces  in  diameter  on  an  area  of  7  acres  was  perhaps 
five  shillings. 

6.  Should   an   infestation    be  very   extensive   it   will 
probably  be  best  to  plough  the  whole  crop  under,  but 
this  must  be  done  before  the  seeds  ripen,  and  if  possible 
before  they  are  formed. 

7.  As  the  seeds  may  lie  dormant  in  the  soil  for  five 
or  six  years,  a  field  that  has  been  attacked  by  Dodder 
should    not   again   be    sown  with    clover    for  seven  or 
eight  years. 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  June,  1909,  p.  209. 


262  COMMON    WEEDS 

8.  Since  it  has  been  shown  that  the  seeds  of  Dodder 
may  pass  through  the  digestive  system   unharmed,  an 
infested    crop    should    not    be    fed    to    stock.       Frank 
records  a  case  in  which  a  field  was  actually  infested 
with  Dodder  by  means  of  manure  from  young  cattle 
which   were  fed  on  rape  and  linseed  cake  containing 
Dodder  seed  which  had  not  been  destroyed. 

9.  It  has  been   found  in  Germany  by  Dr.  Hiltner,1 
Director  •  of    the    Agricultural    Botanical    Institute    at 
Munich,  that  spraying  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron  destroys  Dodder,  but  not  the  clover,  although  the 
leaves    of   the   latter  turn   black,   and  it   appears   as    if 
ruined  at  first,  sprouting  strongly  afterwards  however. 
A    15    per    cent    solution    should    be    employed,    and 
applied    with    a   sprayer   in    such    a    manner   that    the 
liquid    falls  with    some    force   on    the   ground,  wetting 
both   the    plants    and   the   surface   soil.     The    solution 
should  also  be  applied  after  rain  or  when  the  dew  is 
on  the  leaf  and  in  the  early  stage  of  the  infestation. 

10.  The   use   of    arsenite  of  soda   has   been    found 
satisfactory  for  the  destruction  of  Dodder  in  lucerne 
in  Cape  Colony.2     The  solution  recommended  is  1  Ib. 
arsenite   of   soda  to    5   gallons  of   water.      It  is  stated 
that   there    is    no   fear   of    killing   the    lucerne,    and   if 
sprayed  properly  one  application  will  suffice. 

[See  also  Jour.  Board  of  Agric.,  Sept.  1 906  ;  Leaflet 
No.  1 80,  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  ;  E. 
Marre,  La  Lutte  contre  la  Cu scute ;  A.  Thaer,  Landw. 
Unkrauter;  Dr.  A.  B.  Frank,  Kampfbuch  gegen  die 
Schadlinge  unsere  Feldfruchte ;  Dr.  P.  Sorauer,  Pflanzen- 
krankheitenj\ 

1  Prak,  Blatter  fur  Pftanzenbau  und  Pflanzenschutz,  April,  1908. 
*  Agric.  Jour,  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  February,  1908. 


PARASITIC    PLANTS 


263 


OROBANCHACE^: 

The  only  weeds  in  this  order  are  those  of  the  genus 
Orobanche,  known  as  the 
Broom-rapes,  or  robbers  of 
Broom,  from  two  Greek  words 
meaning  a  vetch  and  to  strangle, 
the  vetch  probably  being  re- 
placed by  Broom,  which  is 
commonly  infested.  The 
Broom-rapes,  of  which  there 
are  about  one  hundred  species, 
are  not  so  harmful  as  Dodder, 
but  they  may  sometimes  be 
very  troublesome,  especially 
on  warm,  dry,  light  soils. 

Broom-rapes  are  annual, 
leafless,  brownish  root-para- 
sites, containing  no  chloro- 
phyll or  green  colouring 
matter.  The  stems  are  6 
inches  to  2  feet  high,  generally 
stout  and  scaly,  with  a  some- 
what tuberous  base,  and  occur 
singly  ;  and  the  flowers,  with 
certain  exceptions,  occur  in 
lax  or  dense  spikes.  Finally, 
the  plant  is  attached,  by 
means  of  suckers  or  haustoria, 
to  the  roots  of  the  clover  or 
other  plant  on  which  it  is 
parasitic.  It  subsists  on  the 
food  material  manufactured 
by  the  host  plant,  and  if  it  be  very  plentiful  the  clover 
crop  may  be  almost  or  quite  ruined. 


FlG.  73. — Broom-rape  (Orobanche 
minor  Suit.),  nat.  size. 


264  COMMON    WEEDS 

O.  minor  Sutt.,  or  Lesser  Broom-rape,  is  the  chief 
trouble  of  the  farmer,  chiefly  attacking  clover,  and 
occasionally  doing  great  damage.  This  pest  (Fig.  73) 
is  parasitic  on  a  number  of  plants,  however,  and  is 
recorded  by  Kirchner  as  occurring  on  Trifolium  pratensey 
T.  repens,  T.  hybridum,  T.  incarnatum,  Lotus  corniculatus, 
and  other  plants.  Sorauer  says  it  is  so  harmful  to 
clover  in  Baden  that  it  has  received  the  name  of 
"  clover  devil  "  (kleeteufel).  In  Britain  it  occurs  from 
the  Border  counties  southwards  ;  the  stem  is  6  inches 
to  2  feet  in  height,  rather  slender  compared  with  some 
other  species  ;  and  the  flowers,  appearing  from  June 
to  October,  are  1  inch  long,  reddish,  brown,  violet, 
purplish,  or  yellowish-brown  in  colour,  many  being 
crowded  in  a  long  spike. 

O.  Rapum-genistce  Thuill.,  or  Larger  Broom-rape, 
occurs  from  Dumfries  southwards,  in  Ireland,  and  in 
the  Channel  Islands,  and  is  parasitic  on  the  roots  of  a 
few  shrubby  leguminous  plants,  as  Gorse  and  Broom. 
It  is  brownish  in  colour,  with  flowers,  about  i  inch 
in  length,  of  a  yellow  and  purplish  tint.  The  flowers, 
which  are  in  dense  spikes,  appear  between  June  and 
August. 

O.  ramosa  L.  infests  hemp,  and  on  the  Continent 
tobacco,  while  it  has  been  recorded  on  maize  (Nobbe). 
It  is  brownish  or  pale  yellow  in  colour,  with  light  blue 
or  white  flowers. 

Several  other  species  of  Broom-rape  are  found  in 
Britain,  but  are  of  little  agricultural  importance. 

The  seeds  of  Broom-rapes  are  very  minute,  almost 
dust-like,  and  are  produced  in  large  numbers  in  two- 
valved  capsules,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  ten  million 
seeds  weigh  i  gram.  Sorauer  quotes  Wentz  as  having 
seen  70  to  90  seed-capsules,  containing  on  an  average 
1500  seeds,  ,  on  a  single  plant!  These  minute,  light 


PARASITIC    PLANTS  265 

seeds  are  readily  scattered  by  the  wind,  but  are  easily 
separated  from  clover  seed  samples. 

The  life  history  of  Broom-rape  is  interesting,  for  the 
seeds  only  germinate  on  coming  into  contact  with  the 
roots  of  a  host  plant,  and  some  species  are  parasitic  on 
but  one  host,  while  others  attack  a  number  of  plants. 
In  the  case  of  O.  minor  the  seedling  on  germination 
is  thread-like,  and  somewhat  resembles  that  of  Dodder. 
It  attaches  itself  to  the  roots  of  its  host  by  means  of  a 
sucker,  develops  a  fleshy  stem  which  "grows  upwards 
through  the  soil,  appearing  above  it  like  a  pale, 
brownish-red  asparagus  shoot  from  6  inches  to  18 
inches  in  length."  The  spike  of  flowers  is  then  pro- 
duced. 

According  to  a  Leaflet  *  issued  by  the  Swiss  Experi- 
ment Station,  when  the  summer  is  warm  and  dry  the 
seedlings  grow  rapidly  in  the  first  year,  building  up 
until  autumn  an  onion-shaped,  scaly  rootstock  with 
a  large  number  of  roots,  which  endeavour  to  attach 
themselves  to  other  clover  roots.  No  shoots  come 
above  ground  in  the  first  year,  but  they  appear  in 
the  second  year,  after  the  clover  is  cut.  (In  this  case 
the  Broom-rape  would  be  a  biennial.)  Owing  to  the 
storing  up  of  food  in  the  clover  plants  after  the  clover 
is  cut,  and  the  extra  warmth  of  the  now  bare  soil, 
growth  of  the  Broom-rape  is  very  rapid,  and  the  flowers 
appear  in  a  few  days.  In  an  extraordinarily  short  time 
the  seeds  are  ripened  and  distributed  by  the  wind. 

As  regards  prevention  and  remedy,  the  following  sug- 
gestions may  be  made  : — 

i.  Although  the  seed  of  Broom-rape  is  so  easily 
separated  from  clover  seed  samples,  it  may  sometimes 
be  found  in  such  ;  and  Percival  quotes  a  case  in  which 

1  Fliigblatt   Nr.   j",  Schweizerische  Samen-Untei  sucklings-  und   Versitchs- 
anstalt  Zurich. 


266  COMMON    WEEDS 

he  observed  "  the  bad  effects  of  sowing  impure  samples 
(of  clover  seed)  purchased  without  guarantee."  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  Swiss  Leaflet  already  quoted,  it  is  stated 
that,  "  Because  foreign  red  clover  is  often  badly  infested 
with  Broom-rape,  one  now  and  then  hears  the  opinion 
expressed  that  the  latter  is  introduced  with  foreign 
clover  seed.  This  is  not  so.  In  the  many  thousand 
clover  seed  samples  which  have  already  been  examined, 
the  seeds  of  Broom-rape  have  never  been  found.  This 
is  easily  understood.  Broom-rape  ripens  its  seeds 
much  earlier  than  red  clover.  By  the  time  the  clover 
is  harvested  for  seed  the  last  of  the  parasite  has  dis- 
tributed all  its  seed.  And  even  if  it  did  get  into  the 
clover  seed,  it  would,  on  account  of  its  small  size,  be 
completely  removed  by  the  clover-cleaning  machine. 
Where  Broom-rape  appears,  its  seeds  were  certainly  already 
present  in  the  soil  /  " 

2.  When  a  clover  crop  is  found  to  be  infested  the 
Broom-rape  may  easily  be  pulled  up  by  hand  and 
burnt.  If  it  be  known  that  clover  is  infested,  the  crop 
should  be  cut  early  in  order  to  prevent  the  Broom-rape 
seeding,  and  the  clover  should  then  be  encouraged  to 
grow  thickly  and  strongly,  so  that  it  may  smother  the 
weed.  Ground  lime  and  potash  manures  may  be  use- 
ful in  this  way  if  judiciously  applied ;  and  simply 
manuring  with  nitrogen,  which  in  any  other  case  is  not 
advisable  for  clover,  has  been  followed  with  good 
results  as  a  preventive.1  The  better  the  land  is  pre- 
pared and  manured  before  sowing  the  less  will  the  crop 
be  damaged  by  the  pest.  Sorauer  remarks  that  in  a 
case  of  widespread  infestation  the  chief  means  of  com- 
bating this  pest  consists  in  the  prevention  of  seeding, 
because  spreading  by  scions  or  shoots  is  slow,  and 
easily  preventable  by  uprooting  the  plants.  The  pre- 

1  Swiss  Leaflet  cited. 


PARASITIC    PLANTS  267 

vention  of  seeding  is  doubly  important,  because  not 
only  are  large  quantities  of  seeds  produced,  and  easily 
scattered  by  the  wind,  but  they  may  lie  in  the  soil  for 
years  without  losing  their  vitality.  It  has  been  recorded 
by  Frank  that  in  one  case  the  pest  again  attacked 
clover  which  was  sown  seven  years  after  the  previous 
crop.  The  later  crop  was  so  severely  infested  that  it 
had  to  be  ploughed  up.  On  infested  land,  therefore, 
clover  crops  should  be  as  widely  separated  in  the  rota- 
tion as  possible. 

3.  The   growth   of    heavy-yielding   varieties   of    red 
clover   is   believed    to   be  valuable  on  account  of    the 
strong,  luxuriant,  and  rapid  growth,  well  covering  the 
soil.      It  is,  indeed,  known  that  in  Switzerland  home- 
grown, heavy-yielding   red    clover    is    hardly  attacked, 
while   foreign,  less   robust    kinds   suffer   severely   from 
Broom-rape  attack.     Red  clover  may  also  be  replaced 
by  lucerne  or  sainfoin. 

4.  The    Swiss    Leaflet    recommends    the   sowing   of 
Italian  ryegrass  with  the  clover,  the  reason  being  that 
it  grows  rapidly  after  the  first  cut  is  taken,  and  prevents 
the   continuous   warming    of    the   soil    and    keeps    the 
Broom-rape  back.     On  land  on  which  clover  has  pre- 
viously suffered  from  Broom-rape  pure  red  clover  seed 
is  therefore  not  sown,  but  is  mixed  with  a  fair  percentage 
of  Italian  ryegrass,  not  more  than  about  5  Ib.  per  acre. 

5.  It  is  recommended  by  Frank  that  badly  infested 
fields  should  be  deeply  broken  up  after  the  first  cut  of 
clover  is  taken,  and  before  the  pest  blooms.     The  land 
should    then  be  used    for  other  crops  for  some  years. 
Somewhat  similar  advice  is  given  by  Percival,  who  says 
that,  "  When  once  established  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate 
before    doing    considerable    injury    to    the    crop,    and 
nothing  short   of   ploughing  up  the  clover  will   exter- 
minate the  pest  entirely." 


268  COMMON    WEEDS 

The  Dodders  and  Broom-rapes  above  described  are 
wholly  parasitic  on  their  host  plants.  The  following 
plants  are  only  semi-parasites.  Although  they  possess 
green  leaves  and  are  able  to  assimilate  the  carbon 
dioxide  of  the  air,  their  roots  are  attached  by  haustoria 
or  "suckers"  to  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  host 
plants,  from  which  they  apparently  take  water  and  the 
mineral  food  constituents  necessary  for  their  nutrition. 

Where  they  occur  on  pastures  and  meadows  an 
application  of  4  or  5  cwt.  of  salt  per  acre  checks  their 
growth. 

SCROPHULARIACE^E 

Yellow  Rattle  (Rhinanthus  Crista-galli  L.),  also  known 
as  Rattles,  Rattle-grass,  Cock's-comb,  or  Horse-penny, 
is  an  erect-growing  annual,  6  to  18  inches  high,  with 
narrow  serrated  leaves  placed  opposite  one  another  in 
pairs  on  the  stem,  which  is  quadrangular  and  branched. 
The  flowers  are  numerous  and  arranged  in  spikes  ;  the 
corolla  is  yellow,  with  the  lobes  of  the  upper  lip  blue ; 
the  lower  lip  is  shorter  than  the  upper,  and  three-lobed. 
After  the  corolla  has  fallen  the  calyx  is  tipped  with  red, 
and  resembles  a  Cock's-comb.  The  flowers  appear  in 
May,  June,  and  July.  The  seed  capsules  are  roundish, 
compressed,  and  two-valved,  and  the  seeds  are  roundish, 
compressed,  and  winged,  rattling  in  the  capsule  when 
the  plant  is  shaken — hence  several  common  names  of 
the  weed.  The  word  Rhinanthus  is  from  the  Greek 
rhinos,  the  nose,  and  anthos,  a  flower,  and  therefore 
means  the  nose  flower. 

This  weed  (Fig.  74)  is  partially  parasitic  on  the  roots 
of  grasses  and  other  plants,  and  it  was  shown  sixty  years 
ago  that  it  cannot  be  cultivated  entirely  by  itself.1  It 
is  frequently  very  plentiful  in  damp  meadows  and  pas- 

1  "  Experiments  by  Prof.  Henslow,"  Card.  C/iron.,  1848. 


PARASITIC    PLANTS 


269 


tures,  and  in  such  cases 
is  very  harmful,  useful 
plants  being  crowded 
out  or  robbed  of  their 
food  supplies.  Its  pres- 
ence in  quantity  also 
reduces  the  value  of 
hay.  The  plant  is  not 
liked  by  stock,  and 
some  people  believe 
that  it  imparts  a  bad 
taste  to  butter  made 
from  the  milk  of  cows 
grazing  on  infested  pas- 
tures. When  infested 
grass  land  is  broken  up 
Yellow  Rattle  may  ap- 
pear in  the  first  arable 
crop,  and  possibly  the 
seeds  may  find  their 
way  into  the  granary 
with  grain.  Henslow 
writes  1  :  "  If  the  seeds 
are  ground  up  with  the 
corn  they  impart  a 
violet-brown  colour  to 
the  flour.  This  is  due 
to  a  property  called 
Rhinanthme"  It  has 
been  said  that  they 
similarly  give  an  un- 
pleasant taste  to  the 
flour. 

Yellow  Rattle  is  usually  regarded  as  a  weed  of  poor 

1  Rev.  Professor  G.  Henslow,  Poisonous  Plants  in  Field  and  Garden. 


FIG.  74. — Yellow  Rattle  (Rhinanth^s  Crista- 
galli  L.),  nat.  size. 


270  COMMON    WEEDS 

meadow  land,  well  managed  pastures  being  seldom  in- 
fested. Mr.  ].  P.  Sheldon  wrote  in  ^oy1  "that  an 
abundant  growth  of  this  weed  appears  to  be  promoted 
by  a  prevalent  low  temperature  in  the  period  when 
grass  in  meadow  is — or  ought  to  be — a  little  past  the 
middle  of  its  growth.  In  a  warm  and  <  growing ' 
state  of  weather  at  this  period  all  meadows  worth  their 
salt  fill  up  with  bottom  grass,  and  the  Yellow  Rattle  is 
not  seen."  Another  authority 2  says  that  well-drained 
meadows  seldom  suffer,  but  chiefly  poor  meadow  land 
by  streams  which  are  fed  more  by  stagnant  water  than 
by  drainage  waters  ;  while  in  1907  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture received  specimens  from  Sussex,  where  the 
weed  was  overrunning  land  on  chalk  under  down 
grass.3  It  is  found  in  Britain  as  far  north  as  the 
Shetland  Isles,  and  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  occurs 
as  much  as  2500  feet  above  sea-level  (Hooker). 

Several  preventive  and   remedial   measures  may   be 
practised  : — 

(1)  Early  mowing  before  the  seeds  ripen  ;  when  this 
has   been    followed  two  years   in    succession,  entirely 
satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained.     Late  mowing 
with   the    grass    for  hay   is   useless,   for   many  of  the 
seeds  will  have  ripened  and  become  distributed  by  the 
wind. 

(2)  A  general  improvement  in  the    pasture    should 
be   aimed   at,  and   depasturing   with    sheep  in    spring, 
followed   by  the  application   of  6  to    8    cwt.  of   basic 
slag    on  heavy   land  in    November,    or  5    cwt.   super- 
phosphate on  lighter  land  in  February,  will  be  certain 
to   reduce   the   weed,   and   if  close  grazing  is  regularly 
practised  for   a   time  the  Yellow  Rattle  will   probably 
disappear. 

1  Agricultural  Gazette,  July  8,  1907. 

2  A.  Thaer,  Landw.  Unkrduter. 

3  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  May,  1908. 


PARASITIC    PLANTS 


271 


(3)  Top-dressings    of   salt    have   in    some  instances 
proved  effective.     Grazing  with  sheep  in  April,  accom- 
panied by  a  dressing  of  6  cwt.  per  acre  of  salt,  is  stated 
to  have  had  good  results,  a  field  infested  in  1896  pro- 
ducing  no  Yellow   Rattle   in   1897,  the  year  in  which 
treatment  took  place.1 

In   some    experiments,    conducted    in    1893    by   the 
Glasgow  Technical  College,  the  weed  was  found  to  be 
completely  destroyed  by  the  application  of  6    cwt.   of 
salt    per    acre    in    dry 
sunny    weather    in    the 
end  of  April.     The  salt 
burned    the    surface   of 
the  pastures  very  badly, 
but     the      grasses     re- 
covered when  rain  came, 
and   gave   an   increased 
produce.      The   Yellow 
Rattle,     however,     was 
completely   extermi- 
nated. 

(4)  Where     infested 
pastures  or  meadows  are 
really     damp     or     wet, 
they  should  be  drained, 
grazed,  and  manured. 

Eyebright  (Euphrasia 
offidnalis  L.)  is  an  erect 
annual  (Fig.  75)  com- 
mon in  pastures  and 
meadows  on  light  soils.  F'G' 

It  is  a  very  variable 
plant,  and  some  forms  are  met  with  on  damp  peaty 
ground.     The  stems  are  thin  and  wiry,  from   i    to    6 

1  North  British  Agriculturist,  October,  1897. 


272  COMMON    WEEDS 

inches  high,  often  branched,  and  bear  small  sessile, 
ovate,  or  lanceolate  leaves  with  crenate  or  coarsely 
serrate  margins. 

The  flowers  are  tubular,  two-lipped,  and  white  or 
lilac  with  purple  veins,  the  lower  lip  being  yellow  ; 
they  grow  singly  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  are  open 
from  June  to  August. 

Red  Bartsia  (Bartsia  Odontites  Huds.,  or  Euphrasia 
Odontites  L.)  is  a  frequent  weed  in  fields  and  waste 
places,  and  by  roadsides.  It  has  an  erect  branched  wiry 
stem,  and  in  habit  and  general  appearance  resembles 
a  large  red  Eyebright.  The  leaves  are  opposite  and 
sessile,  usually  narrowly  lanceolate  and  serrate,  though 
they  vary  very  much  in  shape.  The  flowers  are  two- 
lipped,  pink  and  hairy,  and  appear  in  July  and  August, 
arranged  on  one  side  of  the  flowering  stem. 

Yellow  or  Viscid  Bartsia  (B.  viscosa  L.)  is  an  annual 
plant,  with  stems  about  a  foot  high,  ovate  coarsely 
serrate  leaves,  and  yellow  two-lipped  flowers,  which 
are  open  in  June  to  October.  The  whole  plant  has 
sticky  hairs  upon  it.  It  sometimes  grows  abundantly 
in  grass  land. 

Lousewort  or  Red  Rattle  (Pedicularis  sylvatica  L.) 
occurs  on  heaths  and  dampish  meadows  throughout 
the  country.  It  is  a  perennial,  with  long  smooth 
branches  which  spread  over  the  ground  and  grow 
erect  at  the  ends.  The  leaves  are  oblong-pinnatifid, 
the  flowers  two-lipped,  about  an  inch  long,  and  rose- 
pink,  appearing  in  May. 

Another  species  (P.palusiris  L.),  which  is  annual,  grows 
in  marshes  and  bogs.  It  has  a  stout  erect  stem,  with 
few  or  no  branches,  and  large  crimson  flowers  (Fig.  76). 

Cow-wheat  (Melampyrum  pratense  L.)  is  another 
semi-parasitic  plant  which  grows  chiefly  on  the  sides 
of  woods  and  in  thickets,  though  it  is  sometimes  seen 


PARASITIC    PLANTS 


273 


in  dry  pastures.  The  branched  stem  grows  from  6  to 
1 8  inches  high,  and  bears  opposite  leaves,  which  are 
usually  lanceolate-entire,  sometimes  resembling  broad 
grass  leaves.  The  flowers  are  axillary  on  one  side  of 


FIG.  76. — Lou^ewort  (Pedicular is palustris  L.),  x  about 
i.  Flower,  and  2.  Fruit,  both  enlarged. 


the  stem  ;  they  have  long  narrow  yellow  corollas, 
tubular  and  two-lipped,  rather  like  those  of  a  snap- 
dragon, and  are  seen  from  June  to  September. 

Toothwort  (Lathrcea  squamaria  L.)  is  a  perennial 
parasitic  plant  which  lives  on  the  roots  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  especially  hazels.  The  whole  plant  is  fleshy, 
with  stout  stems  3  to  8  inches  long;  the  branched  root- 
stock  has  thick  fleshy  scales  crowded  upon  it,  and  its 
roots  are  attached  to  those  of  the  "  host,"  from  which 
it  draws  its  nourishment.  The  plant  is  pale  yellow  or 

s 


274  COMMON    WEEDS 

sometimes  pinkish,  and  is  practically  devoid  of  chloro- 
phyll. The  flowers  appear  in  April  and  May  ;  they 
are  dull  purple  in  colour,  and  are  arranged  in  un- 
branched  scaly  racemes,  which  are  curved  downwards 
at  the  tip  when  young.  The  corolla  is  two-lipped  and 
open. 

LORANTHACE/E 

Mistletoe  (Viscum  album  L.)  This  familiar  ever- 
green parasite  is  capable  of  attacking  a  great  variety  of 
trees,  but  is  perhaps  most  abundant  on  poplars  and  on 
apple-trees  in  orchards,  where  it  does  a  considerable 
amount  of  damage. 

The  stems  are  round,  dichotomously  branched  or 
"  forked,"  and  yellowish-green,  like  the  opposite  fleshy, 
obovate-lanceolate  leaves.  The  plant  is  dioecious,  the 
small  four-petalled  male  flowers  being  on  one  individual, 
and  the  female  flowers  on  another. 

The  latter  have  inferior  one-celled  ovaries,  which 
develop  into  round,  white,  semi-transparent  berries,  the 
contents  of  which  are  extremely  viscid.  Flowering 
takes  place  in  March  and  April,  and  the  berries  are 
ripe  about  November  and  December,  at  which  time  they 
are  distributed  by  thrushes  and  other  birds  ;  the  seeds 
are  deposited  in  excreta  or  rubbed  by  the  beaks  of  the 
birds  on  branches  of  trees. 

The  seeds  begin  to  germinate  about  April  or  May, 
when  they  send  out  a  root  which  immediately  curves 
towards  and  penetrates  the  bark,  dissolving  its  way  by 
means  of  enzymes  down  to  the  young  wood.  In  a 
year  or  two  the  primary  root  produces  green  lateral 
roots,  which  grow  out  from  it  at  right  angles  and 
extend  along  the  branch  mostly  in  the  bast.  From 
the  lower  side  of  these  lateral  rhizome-like  rootlets  short 
roots  or  "  sinkers  "  are  pushed  out  into  the  wood,  from 


PARASITIC    PLANTS  275 

which  they  probably  absorb  water  and  mineral  con- 
stituents, which  the  plant  needs  for  nutrition.  From 
the  upper  side  of  these  green  root  "runners"  adventi- 
tious buds  arise  and  burst  their  way  out  through  the 
bark,  ultimately  growing  into  leafy  branches. 

Although  young  Mistletoe  plants  develop  slowly  at 
first,  after  a  time  they  grow  more  vigorously,  and 
seriously  rob  their  host  branches  of  food.  The  orchard 
trees  suffer  in  consequence,  and  yield  less  fruit  than  they 
should  do.  At  the  same  time  canker  sometime  appears 
on  the  swollen  branches  attacked  by  the  parasite,  and 
may  spread  to  healthy  trees  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Where  the  pest  occurs  on  orchard  trees  it  is  perhaps 
best  to  cut  off  the  affected  branches.  Where  this  is 
not  feasible  the  parasite  may  be  cut  out  completely, 
roots  and  all,  covering  up  the  wound  afterwards  with 
Stockholm  tar.  The  female  plants  especially  should 
be  destroyed^  as  it  is  from  these  only  that  the  parasite 
is  distributed. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

POISONOUS    PLANTS1 

IN  addition  to  the  weeds  of  arable  and  pasture  land 
already  described,  there  are  a  considerable  number 
which  are  chiefly  important  on  account  of  their  poison- 
ous or  irritant  properties,  and  their  consequent  harmful 
effects  on  farm  live  stock.  In  cases  where  such  weeds 
occur  in  large  quantities  they  may  be  unavoidably 
harvested  with  hay  or  other  crops,  and  thus  be  later 
given  to  stock  ;  or  they  may  be  eaten  in  the  green 
state  in  the  open  fields  and  along  hedgerows.  There 
are  also  certain  poisonous  plants  which,  though  not 
weeds,  may  usefully  be  included  here,  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  they  are  occasionally  eaten  by  farm 
animals,  on  which  they  have  an  irritant  or  toxic  effect. 
Laburnum,  Yew,  and  other  noxious  plants  may  be 
browsed  upon  by  stock  in  fields  near  large  gardens  ; 
others,  such  as  Box,  Rhododendron,  Poison  Ivy,  Helle- 
bore, and  Larkspur,  may  be  obtained  in  clippings  and 
other  rubbish  from  gardens  and  shrubberies. 

RANUNCULACE^: 

Monkshood  (Aconitum  Napellus  L.)  is  not  commonly 
found  otherwise  than  in  gardens,  but  occurs  in  the 
wild  state  in  shady  places  near  streams  in  Wales 

1  The  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  the  various  plants  and  the  antidotes  or 
remedial  measures  are  not  in  general  given.  For  information  on  these  points 
reference  must  be  made  to  medical  or  veterinary  works,  and  to  the  works  by 
Cornevin,  Henslow,  and  Smith.  (See  Bibliography.) 

276 


\ 


Photo,  1909.  /.  c.  Varty-Smith. 

FIG.  77.— Monkshood  (Aconitum  Napellus  L.). 


278  COMMON    WEEDS 

and  one  or  two  western  counties.  It  is  an  upright 
perennial  2  feet  or  so  in  height,  with  deeply  cut  leaves, 
and  tall  spikes  of  dark  blue  flowers,  about  an  inch  in 
diameter,  placed  on  upright  downy  stalks.  The  upper 
sepal  of  the  blue  calyx  is  in  the  form  of  a  hood  or 
cowl,  hence  the  common  name.  The  rootstock  is 
spindle-shaped.  Flowering  takes  place  from  July  to 
September. 

Although  the  whole  plant  (Fig.  77)  is  very  poisonous, 
its  virulence  depends  to  some  extent  upon  the  age  of  the 
plant  and  the  climate  in  which  it  is  grown.  The  leaves 
are  the  least  poisonous,  the  seeds  more  so,  and  the 
root  the  most  deadly.  The  toxic  principle  is  the  alkaloid 
Aconitine.  Drying  removes  a  part  of  the  poison,  and 
boiling  removes  most  of  it,  as  it  is  soluble  in  boiling 
water  (Cornevin).  Medical  works  record  many  examples 
of  human  poisoning,  particularly  in  cases  where  its  root 
has  been  mistaken  for  horse-radish  ;  this  mistake  should 
rarely  occur,  as  the  Aconite  root  is  a  conical  tap-root, 
tapering  to  a  point,  while  that  of  the  horse-radish  is 
cylindrical,  and  possesses  a  characteristic  pungent 
odour.  The  plant  is  generally  avoided  by  live  stock, 
but  poisoning  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs  have 
been  recorded  (Cornevin).  Linnaeus  also  says  that  it 
is  fatal  to  cows  and  goats  when  they  eat  it  fresh,  but 
mentions  that  when  dried  it  does  no  harm  to  horses. 

Buttercups  (Ranunculus  sp.). — Several  species  of 
Buttercups  are  of  a  poisonous  character,  containing  an 
acrid  juice.  All  bear  yellow  flowers  of  varying  sizes. 
The  toxic  principle,  however,  is  volatile,  and  easily 
destroyed  by  boiling  or  drying;  in  hay,  therefore, 
Buttercups  may  be  considered  harmless,  and  are  readily 
eaten  by  stock,  forming  a  nourishing  food.  Butter- 
cups, however,  may  well  be  replaced  in  pastures  by 
more  useful  plants.  (See  also  p.  152.) 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  279 

R.  scekratus  L.,  known  as  Celery-leaved  Buttercup,  is 
an  upright  annual,  about  i  to  2  feet  high,  with  smooth 
leaves  divided  into  three  irregular  lobes.  It  occurs  in 
ditches,  ponds,  and  wet  places,  flowering  from  May  to 
September.  The  flowers  are  small,  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  across,  and  the  sepals  reflexed,  or  turned  sharply 
back  towards  the  hollow  stem.  This  species  is  especially 
noxious  to  farm  stock. 

R.  acris  L.,  Tall  Crowfoot  or  Acrid  Buttercup,  is  a 
hairy  erect  perennial  with  much  divided  leaves.  It 
attains  to  a  height  of  3  feet ;  the  flowers  are  much  larger 
than  those  of  R.  sceleratus,  being  about  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  across.  The  sepals  are  spreading,  and  the  flower 
stalks  cylindrical.  Tall  Crowfoot  is  found  in  meadows 
and  by  roadsides  ;  flowering  takes  place  between  April 
and  September.  Tall  Crowfoot  has  been  a  frequent 
cause  of  cattle  poisoning,  and  induces  intense  inflamma- 
tion of  the  digestive  organs.  (See  also  p.  152.) 

R.  bnlbosus  L.,  or  Bulbous  Buttercup,  is  another  hairy 
erect  perennial,  distinguished  from  other  Buttercups  by 
the  stem,  which  has  a  swollen  bulb-like  base,  generally 
about  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut.  The  leaves  are  divided,  and 
the  flowers,  which  open  from  May  to  June,  are  J  to  i  inch 
across,  the  sepals  being  reflexed  to  touch  the  flower 
stalk.  It  is  similar  in  its  poisonous  qualities  to  R. 
acris.  (See  also  p.  152.) 

R.  Flammula  L.,  the  Lesser  Spearwort,  is  a  common 
species  of  Ranunculus  in  wet  places,  such  as  water 
meadows  and  marshes.  It  attains  a  height  of  i  foot, 
and  bears  long,  narrow,  pointed  leaves,  very  different 
in  form  from  those  of  the  field  Buttercups.  The 
flowers  are  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter  when  fully 
open,  and  appear  between  June  and  August.  This 
species  has,  according  to  Henslow,  often  proved  fatal 
to  horses  and  cattle  which  have  eaten  it  ;  such  accidents 


280  COMMON    WEEDS 

have  occurred  at  the  village  of  Gamlingay,  in  Cambridge- 
shire. 

R.  Ficaria  L.,  or  Lesser  Celandine,  has  also  caused 
poisoning  among  cattle.  It  has  heart-shaped  leaves, 
and  grows  quite  close  to  the  ground,  only  attaining  4 
to  6  inches  in  height.  The  solitary  "flowers  are  about 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  across,  with  about  a  dozen 
bright  yellow  petals,  and  appear  from  March  to  May, 
being  open  much  earlier  than  those  of  the  other  species 
mentioned. 

R.  repens  L.  and  R.  arvensis  L.,  already  dealt  with 
(pp.  50  and  52),  are  cited  by  Cornevin  as  poisonous 
plants. 

Wood  Anemone  (Anemone  nemorosa  L.),  the  common 
Anemone  of  woods  and  copses,  is  sometimes  present 
in  meadows.  It  is  a  very  acrid  perennial  herb,  which 
flowers  in  April  and  May.  Although  cattle  have  been 
poisoned  by  it,  there  appear  to  be  no  records  of  fatal 
results. 

Larkspur  (Delphinium  Aj'acis  Reich.)  is  not  common, 
but  occurs  in  cornfields  in  Cambridgeshire,  Sussex,  and 
some  other  places.  It  is  an  annual,  and  the  blue, 
white,  or  pink  flowers  open  in  June  and  July.  They 
are  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  one  of  the  sepals 
is  prolonged  into  a  characteristic  "  spur,"  from  which 
the  plant  takes  its  common  name. 

The  seeds  of  Larkspurs  are  said  to  be  especially 
poisonous,  the  toxic  principle  being  Delphine,  an 
alkaloid.  One  species,  Stavesacre  (D.  staphisagria),  is 
used  in  medicine. 

Hellebore  (Helleborus  fcetidus  L.  and  H.  viridis  L.) 
are  by  no  means  common  plants,  but  the  former, 
Stinking  Hellebore,  so  called  on  account  of  its  fetid 
odour,  occurs  in  thickets  and  on  chalk  pastures  in 
some  southern  and  eastern  English  counties  ;  while 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  281 

the  latter  species,  Green   Hellebore,  is  found,  also  on 
chalk,  in  woods  and  hedges  in  many  localities. 

The  flowers,  which  are  many  in  the  case  of  H. 
fcetidus  and  few  with  H.  viridis,  open  early  in  the  year 
(February  to  March  and  March  to  April  respectively). 
They  have  no  prominent  petals  ;  what  appears  to  be 
the  corolla  is  formed  of  the  sepals,  which  are  five  in 
number,  and  in  //.  viridis  green  and  spreading,  but  in 
H.  fcetidus  green  tipped  with  dull  purple,  erect  and 
overlapping.  The  leaves  are  borne  on  long  stalks, 
and  are  divided  into  irregular  palmate  lobes.  Both 
species  are  perennial.  The  Christmas  Rose  (H.  niger) 
is  a  much  esteemed  cultivated  species  of  Helleborus. 

Both  species  are  powerful  vegetable  irritants,  being 
purgative  and  cathartic,  the  toxic  principle  being  the 
glucoside  Helleborin.  Fatal  poisoning  of  human  beings 
has  been  recorded.  The  poison  is  not  removed  by 
drying  or  boiling  as  in  the  case  of  Buttercups.  Live 
stock  are  unlikely  to  touch  the  plant  or  eat  it  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  cause  serious  results,  yet  animals 
have  been  killed  by  it — "cows  have  died  from  eating 
the  trimmings  of  the  Fetid  Hellebore  mixed  with  other 
herbage  when  thrown  out  from  a  shrubbery  into  the 
field  where  they  were"  (Henslow). 

PAPAVERACE^ 

The  Common  Poppies  (Papaver  sp.),  which  are  dealt 
with  from  another  standpoint  at  p.  53,  are  actively 
toxic  or  narcotic,  the  worst  species  being  P.  somniferum 
L.  (the  Opium  Poppy).  The  common  red  Poppy 
(P.  Rhceas  L.)  is  stated  by  Cornevin  to  be  poisonous 
in  all  its  parts,  and  sufficiently  so  to  occasion  accidents 
every  year.  The  toxic  principle  consists  of  the  alka- 
loids Morphine  and  Rhceadine.  Poisoning  of  domestic 


282  COMMON    WEEDS 

animals  may  occur  if  they  are  fed  with  clovers  or 
sainfoin  which  are  infested  with  Poppies,  and  also  when 
they  ingest  the  capsules  and  seeds  with  other  waste 
matter  from  the  winnowing  or  grading  of  cereals. 
Cattle  have  been  occasionally  injured  by  eating  unripe 
Poppy-heads  when  the  plant  was  mixed  with  clover 
and  sainfoin  (Henslow).  In  the  open,  however,  farm 
animals  are  usually  safe  where  Poppies  abound,  as  the 
unpleasant  odour  and  taste  of  the  plants  render  them 
obnoxious. 

Cornevin  remarks  that  cattle  poisoned  by  P.  Rhceas 
exhibit  at  first  symptoms  of  excitement,  shown  by 
continual  movement,  by  pawing  of  the  soil  or  litter, 
by  increased  respiration  and  a  more  rapid  pulse.  This 
is  followed  by  stoppage  of  the  digestive  functions,  and 
sometimes  a  little  swelling  of  the  eyelids.  These 
preliminary  symptoms  are  succeeded  by  a  period  of 
coma,  the  animal  appears  to  sleep  while  standing, 
remaining  motionless,  and  if  forced  to  move  walks  in 
an  unsteady  manner.  Soon  it  falls,  and,  if  a  fatal 
result  is  likely  to  occur  (which  is  exceptional),  the 
animal  remains  stretched  out  on  the  ground  ;  respira- 
tion becomes  slower,  the  temperature  falls,  and  after 
a  few  convulsive  movements  death  supervenes  owing 
to  arrested  respiration. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  drugs  morphine,  opium, 
and  laudanum  are  prepared  from  Poppies  ;  the  red 
colouring  matter  of  the  petals  is  also  extracted  and 
utilised  for  certain  purposes. 

Greater  Celandine  (Chelidonium  majus  L.)  is  an  erect 
branched  perennial  which  grows  in  "  waste  places  and 
hedgerows  in  the  South  of  England,  probably  natura- 
lised, elsewhere  an  escape  "  (Hooker).  It  attains  to  a 
height  of  2  feet.  The  leaves  are  abundant,  very  thin 
and  much  divided,  with  toothed  and  lobed  segments. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  283 

The  yellow  flowers  open  between  May  and  August,  are 
nearly  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  occur  "  in  loose  few- 
flowered  umbels  "  on  slender  stalks  ;  the  petals  are  four 
in  number.  The  seed  capsules  are  about  ij  inch  long. 
The  plant  exhales  an  unpleasant  odour,  and  contains  a 
yellowish  acrid  juice. 

C.  majus  is  a  vegetable  irritant,  producing  nausea  and 
dysentery,  and  is  a  drastic  purgative.  The  toxic 
principle  is  Chelidonine,  an  alkaloid,  and  neither  drying 
nor  boiling  eliminates  the  poisonous  property.  It  has 
been  used  by  country  people  as  an  emetic  and  purga- 
tive, but  should  be  avoided  owing  to  its  harmful  nature. 
Animals  refuse  the  plant. 

CRUCIFER^: 

Charlock  (Sinapis  arvensis),  which  is  more  fully  dealt 
with  at  p.  58,  must  also  be  included  among  poisonous 
plants,  since  the  whole  plant  is  an  irritant  when  in 
bloom,  and  the  seeds  are  of  a  dangerous  character, 
causing  inflammation  of  the  intestine.  Cornevin  states 
that  when  used  in  admixture  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
poor  quality  oil-cake  and  fed  to  cattle  the  cake  caused 
intestinal  inflammation,  severe  diarrhoea,  and  great 
thirst.  The  effects  are  probably  due  to  Oil  of 
Mustard. 

CARYOPHYLLACE^E 

Corn  Cockle  (Agrostemma  Githago  L.)  is  a  common 
plant  of  cornfields,  covered  with  white  hairs,  and 
attaining  3  or  4  feet  in  height.  It  is  tall  and  erect, 
with  straight,  narrow  lanceolate  leaves  up  to  5  inches 
long  placed  opposite  one  another  on  the  stem  in  pairs. 
The  flowers  (Fig.  78)  are  borne  singly  on  long  stalks 
which  spring  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  They  are 


284 


COMMON    WEEDS 


1 1  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  with  five  pale  purple  or 
violet-red  petals,  and  appear  in  June,  July,  and  August. 
The  five  green  sepals  are  much  longer  and  narrower 
than  the  petals.  The  seed  capsule  is  large,  and  con- 
tains twenty  or  thirty  rough  black  seeds,  which  are 
nearly  the  size  of  grains  of  wheat,  and  for  this  reason 


FIG.  78.  —  Corn  Cockle  (Agrostemma  Githago  L.),  x  about 
i.  Fruit  enlarged. 


are  separated  from  the  cereal  with  difficulty.     They  are 
bitter  to  the  taste. 

The  plant  is  harmful  in  three  ways.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  a  weed  in  the  usual  sense  —  it  grows  where 
it  is  not  required  and  crowds  the  cultivated  crop. 
Secondly,  the  seeds  may  be  ground  up  with  wheat, 
discolouring  the  flour,  and  imparting  even  to  bread 
when  baked  a  greyish  tint  and  disagreeable  odour. 
Thirdly,  the  seeds  are  of  a  poisonous  character,  the 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  285 

toxic  principle  not  being  destroyed  by  heat  of  an 
ordinary  oven  in  baking.  Bread  containing  Corn  Cockle 
has  proved  fatal.  Although  farm  live  stock  are  unlikely 
to  touch  the  plant  when  growing,  the  seed  may  be 
ground  up  and  mixed  with  feeding  stuffs,  and  Cornevin 
states  that  poisoning  has  occurred  in  the  case  of  man 
and  all  domestic  animals.  In  1874,  evidence  in  a 
case  at  Lyons  showed  that  there  were  then  merchants 
sufficiently  unscrupulous  to  add  45  per  cent  of  Corn 
Cockle  flour  to  meals  intended  for  the  feeding  of  stock. 
Cornevin  was  unable  to  state  the  amount  of  the  flour 
necessary  to  cause  death  for  animals  other  than  calves, 
pigs,  dogs,  and  poultry,  and  for  these  the  amounts 
are — 

Calf        .        .        .        .25  Ib.  \ 

P*>          '         '  *10   "     I  per  100  Ib.  live  weight. 

Fowl       .         .         .        .25    "    J 

Since  that  date  numerous  experiments  have  been 
made  with  Corn  Cockle,  and  a  variety  of  conclusions 
have  been  recorded.  We  summarise  from  The  United 
States  Experiment  Station  Record various  notes  which  have 
appeared  for  many  years  past,  the  experiments  referred 
to  being  conducted  in  Germany.  In  experiments  at 
the  Vienna  Experiment  Station  l  bread  containing  40 
per  cent  of  Cockle  seed  meal  was  eaten  by  both  adults 
and  children,  and  gave  negative  results.  In  1892 
Kornauth  and  Arche  found  2  by  feeding  trials  that  Corn 
Cockle  was  not  poisonous  to  pigs,  a  conclusion  which 
is  contrary  to  general  belief.  They  found  that  albumi- 
noid metabolism  was  diminished,  but  fat  production 
increased  ;  with  70  per  cent  of  Corn  Cockle  in  the  food 
the  growth  of  the  animals  was  diminished,  but  the 

1  Exp.  Sta.  Rec.,  vol.  iv.  p.  91. 

2  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  90 ;  vol.  v.  p.  228. 


286  COMMON    WEEDS 

action  did  not  appear  to  be  poisonous.  The  authors 
even  concluded  that  Corn  Cockle  may  be  regarded  as 
a  harmless  and  valuable  food  for  growing  pigs,  and 
refuse  containing  it  is  extensively  used  in  Hungary  for 
fattening  pigs. 

In  1893  a  number  of  pigs  died  in  Germany  when 
fed  on  coarsely  ground  rye  tailings  containing  6  per 
cent  of  Cockle,  symptoms  of  acute  poisoning  being 
observed.  Forty  work-horses,  however,  were  un- 
injured when  given  3^  Ib.  of  similar  tailings.1  In 
another  case  five  cows  were  supposed  to  have  been 
poisoned  by  Cockle ; 2  and  in  still  another  to  exert  a 
poisonous  action  on  pigs  (I9O4-5).3  Experiments  con- 
ducted in  1903-4  showed  that  Corn  Cockle  exerted  a 
more  favourable  than  unfavourable  influence  on  the 
total  yield  of  milk  of  cows,  but  a  very  unfavourable 
influence  on  the  quality  of  butter.4  About  the  same 
time 4  experiments  with  cows,  sheep,  pigs,  and  goats 
indicated  that  in  the  amounts  usually  found  in  feed- 
ing stuffs,  Corn  Cockle  has  no  poisonous  influence  on 
domestic  animals. 

About  1892  Nevinny  concluded5  that  6  grams  of 
Cockle  seed  consumed  in  1200  grams  of  bread  were 
beyond  doubt  poisonous  in  effect,  and  that  the  sale 
of  grain  or  flour  containing  it  should  be  forbidden. 
Robert  also  thought  that  the  sale  of  feeding  stuffs  con- 
taining the  seeds  of  Corn  Cockle  should  be  prohibited 
by  law.6  Pesch,  who  made  an  extensive  study  of  the 
question,  concluded  7  as  follows  :  "  Under  certain  con- 
ditions Corn  Cockle  is  injurious  to  domestic  animals. 
The  amount  of  the  poisonous  substance  in  the  seed 
is  variable,  depending  probably  upon  the  season  and 

1  Exp.  Sta.  Rec.,  vol.  v.  p.  813.  z  Ibid.,  vol.  xii.  p.  394. 

3  Ibid.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  103.  4  Ibid.,  vol.  xv.  p.  1001. 

5  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  90.  6  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  92. 

7  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  310, 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  287 

the  soil.  Animals  become  accustomed  to  it,  so  that 
amounts  of  seed  which  at  first  cause  sickness,  later 
have  no  injurious  effect.  The  susceptibility  of  animals 
to  the  poison  varies  both  with  the  species  and  the 
individual.  Young  animals  are  more  readily  affected 
than  older  ones.  It  is  believed  that  rodents  and  sheep 
are  not  susceptible,  and,  as  far  as  is  known,  grown 
cattle  are  only  slightly  or  not  at  all  affected  by  the 
poison.  Calves,  swine,  horses,  and  especially  dogs,  are 
more  or  less  susceptible.  Concerning  birds  and  fowls, 
there  is  some  doubt." 

Corn  Cockle  is  included  by  A.  B.  Smith  l  as  a  simple 
irritant  poison. 

The  toxic  principle  is  variously  stated  to  be  Sapotoxin, 
a  glucoside,  Smilacin,  Saponin,  or  Githagin.  Pesch  says  2 
that  the  seeds  contain  a  poisonous  substance  called 
Saponin  or  Githagin,  a  bitter  property  which  may  cause 
nervous  debility  and  dysentery.  lt  The  poisonous  con- 
stituent is  very  freely  soluble  in  water,  and  possesses  a 
sharp  burning  taste.  It  has  no  odour,  but  when  inhaled 
in  the  smallest  quantity  it  produces  violent  sneezing. 
When  briskly  shaken  with  water  it  froths  like  soap. 
The  poison  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  plant,  but 
mainly  in  the  kernel  of  the  seed/' 3  The  starch  grains 
of  Corn  Cockle  are  only  about  one-fifteenth  the  size  of 
those  of  wheat,  and  are  easily  distinguishable  with  the 
microscope,  and  by  a  chemical  test  with  iodine. 

The  evidence  given  above  is  sufficiently  conclusive 
to  show  that  the  ingestion  of  the  seeds  of  Corn  Cockle 
should  always  be  avoided,  and  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  seeds  are  completely  removed  from 
cereals  before  the  latter  are  used  for  food. 

1  Poisonous  Plants  of  all  Countries,  1905. 

2  Die  Hittermittel  des  Handels,  1906. 

3  Farmers'  Bull.,  No.  86,  U.S.  Dept.  Agric. 


288  COMMON    WEEDS 

When  Corn  Cockle  occurs  in  cornfields  it  should  be 
eradicated,  and  strenuous  attempts  made  to  prevent  it 
reaching  the  seeding  stage.  Pure  seed  corn  should 
always  be  used. 

CELASTRACE^: 

The  Spindle  Tree  (Euonymus  europceus  L.),  the 
generic  name  of  which  is  taken  from  Euonyme, 
"  Mother  of  the  Furies,"  occurs  in  copses  and  hedges, 
often  on  chalk,  from  Roxburgh  southwards.  It  is 
stated  by  Hooker  to  be  rare  in  Scotland  and  local  in 
Ireland.  It  grows  from  5  to  20  feet  in  height,  and  is 
a  smooth  and  fetid  shrub  or  tree.  The  leaves  are 
ovate-lanceolate  in  shape,  2  to  4  inches  long,  smooth, 
in  opposite  pairs,  with  short  stalks.  The  flowers, 
which  open  in  May  and  June,  are  one-third  to  one-half 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  occur  in  clusters  of  five  to  ten 
on  stalks  of  an  inch  or  more  in  length  ;  they  are 
greenish-white  in  colour.  The  bark  is  at  first  bright 
green  and  smooth.  The  common  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  the  wood  was  formerly  made  into 
spindles. 

This  plant  is  poisonous  in  all  its  parts,  but  the  berries 
are  especially  so.  Children  have  suffered  from  eating 
the  fruits,  which  are  strongly  purgative  ;  and  Cornevin 
states  that  sheep  and  goats  have  been  injured  by  eating 
the  leaves.  The  poisonous  principle  is  the  glucoside 
Euonymin. 

RHAMNE.E 

Common  Buckthorn  (Rhanmus  catharticus  L.)  is  a 
shrub  of  5  to  10  feet  high,  much  branched,  the 
branches  being  opposite  and  spinous  at  the  ends  ;  the 
leaves  are  ovate  and  serrate  ;  the  yellowish -green 
flowers,  under  \  inch  in  diameter,  may  be  solitary  or 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  289 

in  crowded  cymose  clusters  on  short  stalks  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  ;  and  the  fruits,  containing  four  stones, 
are  round,  black,  and  strongly  cathartic  and  purgative 
in  character.  The  flowers  appear  from  May  to  July, 
and,  according  to  Hooker,  the  Buckthorn  occurs  from 
Westmorland  southwards,  chiefly  on  chalk,  and  is 
perhaps  not  wild  south  of  Durham,  while  it  is  rare 
in  Ireland.  The  fruits  should  not  be  eaten,  as  they 
may  produce  dangerous  effects :  they  yield  a  green 
dye. 

LEGUMINOS.E 

Indian  Tares. — Various  species  of  Lathyrus  met 
with  in  Spain,  Italy,  Africa,  and  other  parts  of  the 
world  are  poisonous,  and  not  unfrequently  lead  to  fatal 
results  when  consumed  by  animals.  In  1894  several 
horses  belonging  to  the  Bristol  Tramways  Company 
were  poisoned  by  eating  so-called  Indian  Peas  (the 
seeds  of  Lathyrus  sativus),  and  other  injurious  effects 
upon  farm  stock  are  recorded  after  eating  cakes  and 
meals  containing  these  seeds.  The  British  species, 
L.  Aphaca  L.  (Yellow  Vetchling),  has  caused  violent 
headaches  and  vomiting  in  the  case  of  persons  who 
have  eaten  the  seeds.  This  plant  occurs  in  corn- 
fields from  the  Midland  counties  southwards,  and 
flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  grows  to  a  height  of 
i  to  3  feet,  and  bears  large  leaf-like  stipules  and  long 
tendrils.  The  pale  yellow  flowers  are  produced  singly 
at  the  nodes.  [See  also  "  Lathyrus  Poisoning,"  Veteri- 
nary Journal,  1885  and  1886;  "  Leguminous  Plant 
Poisoning,"  Jour.  Bot.  Soc.  Edin.y  Dec.,  1894,  by  Dr. 
R.  S.  MacDougall.] 

Lupins  (Lupinus  sp.)  are  not  much  cultivated  in  this 
country  on  the  farm,  but  various  kinds  are  well  known 
in  garden  cultivation,  where  they  are  highly  valued  for 

T 


290  COMMON    WEEDS 

ornamental  purposes.  Some  species  are  valuable 
forage  crops,  and  useful  for  reclaiming  sandy  soils, 
being  usually  ploughed  in  or  folded  with  sheep.  Of 
these  the  Yellow  Lupin  (L.  luteus  L.)  and  Blue  Lupin 
(L.  angustifolius  L.)  are  grown  most  extensively.  The 
Yellow  Lupin  has  caused  much  trouble  on  the  Con- 
tinent, especially  in  Germany.  Cornevin  states  that  in 
1880  no  less  than  14,138  out  of  240,000  sheep  fed 
upon  it,  or  5.89  per  cent,  died  after  suffering  from  a 
complaint  termed  "  Lupinose."  Sheep  were  chiefly 
affected,  because  it  was  to  this  class  of  stock  that  the 
crop  was  principally  given,  but  cattle,  goats,  and  horses 
did  not  escape.  Percival  states  that  Lupins  "  contain 
a  variable  proportion  of  a  bitter  alkaloid  which  makes 
them  unpalatable  to  horses  and  cattle,  and  sheep  at 
first  appear  to  dislike  the  crop.  In  addition  to  the 
bitter  alkaloid,  Lupins  under  certain  indefinite  con- 
ditions of  soil,  manuring,  and  storage  sometimes 
contain  a  poisonous  compound  named  Lupinotoxme, 
which  rapidly  produces  fatal  results  in  sheep  when 
the  latter  are  fed  with  even  moderate  amounts  of  the 
cut  green  fodder  or  hay.  Of  the  various  methods  to 
render  the  Lupin  crop  perfectly  innocuous,  heating 
with  steam  under  pressure  of  one  or  two  atmospheres 
has  proved  the  most  certain." 

"Java"  Beans  (Phaseolus  lunatus)  are  the  seeds  of  a 
foreign  bean  which  have  been  occasionally  imported 
into  this  country  from  the  East  for  feeding  purposes, 
and  owing  no  doubt  to  their  general  similarity  to  white 
haricots  and  butter  beans  have  found  favour  with 
farmers  and  others.  In  the  past  five  years  there  have 
been  a  number  of  cases  of  poisoning  by  so-called 
"Java"  Beans  (Fig.  790).  In  March  1906  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  published  a  report  of  the 
poisoning  of  farm  animals  at  eight  centres.  At  two  of 


POISONOUS    PLANTS 


291 


them  the  number  of  animals  were  not  stated,  but  at  the 

other   six    133    head  of 

cattle  were  involved,  and 

of  these  no  fewerthan  43 

died.   The  meal  on  which 

the  animals  were  fed  was 

prepared  from  the  beans 

of  P.   lunatus,   of   which 

several    types    occur    in 

cultivation    and    in    the 

wild  state.     These  types 

exhibit   Considerable   dif-  FlG"  79««.-Java  Beans,  nat.  size. 

ferences  in  colour,  some  of  them  being  creamy-white, 

reddish-brown,  brownish  with 
purple  spots  and  blotches 
(Fig.  796),  purplish-black,  or 
black  with  white  stripes. 

The  toxic  principle  is  Phaseo- 
lunatin,  a  glucoside  which, 
under  certain  conditions,  gives 
rise  to  prussic  acid.  The 
largest  proportion  of  the 
poisonous  principle  appears 
to  be  contained  in  the  coloured 

seed  beans  ;  the  white  forms  (Fig. 

79^:)  contain   much  less,  or  none 

at    all,    and    are    in    general    safe 

for  feeding  to  stock.      Before  any 

doubtful  kinds  of  beans  are  used 

for  feeding  purposes  their  identity 

should    be   ascertained,   and    they 

should  be  purchased  under  guaran- 
tee.    (See  the  Journal  of  the  Board 

of  Agriculture  for    March  and  April    1906,  and   March 

By  courtesy  of  the  Editor  of  The  Field. 


FIG.  79*5*. — Red  Rangoon  Beans, 
nat.  size. 


FIG.  7gc*.—  White  Beans, 
nat.  size. 


292  COMMON    WEEDS 

1908  ;  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society,  1907  ;  the  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  1903  ; 
and  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  1903.) 

Laburnum  (Cytisus  Laburnum  L.)  is  a  decorative  tree, 
well  known  throughout  the  country,  the  drooping 
racemes  of  yellow  flowers  appearing  in  May  and  June. 
It  is  stated  by  Henslow  to  be  "certainly  one  of  the 
most  poisonous  of  all  trees  cultivated  in  gardens " ; 
and  Cornevin  remarks  that  numerous  experimental 
researches  have  proved  that  the  wood,  bark,  leaves, 
flowers,  seeds,  and  roots  are  poisonous,  the  seeds  espe- 
cially so.  Smith  includes  the  Laburnum  among  vege- 
table irritants,  producing  nervous  symptoms,  abdominal 
pain,  vomiting,  purging,  and  tetanic  spasms.  The  toxic 
principle  is  Cytisin.  A  case  was  recorded  T  by  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  in  1908,  in  which  two  horses  were  alleged 
to  have  been  poisoned  in  North  Wales  by  eating  Labur- 
num seeds,  which  were  found  in  their  stomachs  on 
post-mortem  examination,  although  in  very  small 
quantity.  The  symptoms  attendant  on  Laburnum 
poisoning  in  cattle  are  stated  to  be  trembling,  disincli- 
nation to  move,  partial  paralysis  of  the  limbs,  tympany, 
and  salivation. 

ROSACES 

The  Cherry  Laurel  (Prunus  laurocerasus  L.),  so  com- 
mon in  shrubberies,  has  caused  numerous  accidents 
both  to  man  and  the  domestic  animals  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  Gerlach  (vide  Cornevin)  cited  a  case  of  the 
poisoning  of  twenty-five  sheep.  The  crushed  leaves  are 
used  by  entomologists  for  killing  insects.  Its  toxicity 
probably  depends  to  some  extent  on  locality.  Henslow 
remarks  that  in  England  it  appears  to  be  much  less,  if 
at  all,  harmful,  and  states  that  his  own  cows  completely 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  March  1908,  p.  695. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS 


293 


ruined  a  long  laurel  hedge,  the  abnormal  food  doing 
no  damage  either  to  the  cows  or  to  the  milk  they 
produced. 

CUCURBITACE^: 

Bryony  (Bryonia  dioica  L.)  is  a  well-known  climbing 
plant   of  hedges   and  thickets   in    England,    not    being 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FIG.  80.  —  Spray  of  Bryony  (Bryonia  dioica  L.). 


294  COMMON    WEEDS 

found  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  (Hooker).  The  leaves  are 
five-lobed,  light  green  in  colour,  and  the  plant  climbs  by 
means  of  long  thread-like  tendrils,  which  twine  round 
other  plants  for  support  (Fig.  80).  The  rootstock  con- 
sists of  large  fleshy  tubers,  "  sometimes  nearly  two  feet 
long,  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  white,  succulent,  and  fleshy, 
with  an  acrid,  bitter,  and  disagreeable  taste  "  (Henslow). 
The  flowers  are  quite  small  and  greenish-white,  appear- 
ing between  May  and  October  ;  they  give  rise  to  red 
berries.  Bryony  has  an  unpleasant  odour,  and  contains 
a  milky,  nauseous  juice.  It  is  a  highly  irritant  plant, 
and  the  tuberous  roots  have  been  the  cause  of  the 
poisoning  of  whole  families  who  have  eaten  them 
instead  of  parsnips  and  turnips.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  forty  berries  would  cause  the  death  of  a  man, 
and  that  fifteen  would  similarly  suffice  in  the  case  of 
children  (Cornevin).  The  toxic  principle  is  a  glucoside 
called  Bryonin. 

UMBELLIFER.E 

Several  members  of  this  order  may  be  exceedingly 
harmful  either  to  man  or  to  domestic  animals. 

Hemlock  (Conium  maculatum  L.),  illustrated  in  Fig. 
8 1,  a  plant  which  may  attain  to  5  feet  or  more.  It  has 
a  hollow,  smooth  stem,  somewhat  glaucous,  and  more 
or  less  thickly  dotted  with  purplish  spots.  The  leaves 
are  large  and  compound,  and  the  segments  are  deeply 
cut,  as  in  most  plants  of  the  order.  Hemlock  grows  on 
banks,  near  hedges,  and  by  roadsides  and  streams,  and 
in  Yorkshire  is  found  at  an  altitude  of  1000  feet.  It  is 
a  biennial,  and  flowers  in  June  to  July,  the  flowers  being 
white  and  in  "  umbels."  The  poisonous  principle  is  at 
first  chiefly  contained  in  the  foliage,  but  later  in  the 
fruit,  and,  as  in  certain  other  plants,  is  largely  dissipated 
when  the  plant  is  dried,  as  in  hay.  Owing  perhaps  to 


POISONOUS    PLANTS 


295 


the  fact  that  the  whole 
plant  possesses  a  fetid, 
disagreeable  odour  it  ap- 
pears rarely  to  be  touched 
by  stock  when  in  the 
growing  state,  although 
it  is  stated  that  in  the 
United  States,  where  it 
has  become  naturalised, 
many  domestic  animals 
have  been  killed  by  it. 
Cases  of  poisoning  have 
arisen  from  eating  the 
seeds  for  those  of  anise, 
and  through  using  the 
leaves  for  parsley  ;  the 
roots  have  also  been  mis- 
taken for  parsnips  with 
deleterious  results.1  The 
plant  has  been  known 
from  ancient  times  to  be 
poisonous,  and  it  was  pro- 
bably the  poison  of  the 
Hemlock  which  was  ad- 
ministered to  the  philoso- 
pher Socrates  by  the 
Greeks. 

The  poisonous  prin- 
ciple consists  of  several 
alkaloids,  the  chief  of 
which  is  Conine.  The 
symptoms  of  poisoning 
in  cows  are  described  as 
"  loss  of  appetite,  saliva- 
tion, bloating,  much  body 


1   Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  86,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 


296  COMMON    WEEDS 

pain,  loss  of  muscular  power,  and  rapid,  feeble  pulse." 
The  plant  should  be  avoided  as  food  in  any  form  by 
man  or  animals,  and  where  there  is  danger  of  its  being 
taken  in  this  way  it  should  be  eradicated  by  hand 
pulling  as  fast  as  it  appears,  and  by  digging  up  the 
roots. 

Cowbane  or  Water  Hemlock  (Cicuta  virosa  L.)  is  a 
weed  which  grows  in  damp,  watery  places,  as  by  the 
edges  of  ponds,  ditches,  rivers,  &c.,  from  the  southern 
counties  as  far  north  as  Dumbarton  and  Forfar,  and 
in  Mid  and  North  Ireland.  It  is  a  perennial  plant  of 
2  to  4  feet  in  height,  with  large  compound  leaves, 
the  serrated  segments  of  which  are  long  and  narrow  ; 
the  white  flowers  are  produced  in  July  to  August,  and 
occur  in  umbels  3  to  5  inches  in  diameter.  The  stem 
is  stout  and  furrowed,  and  the  rootstock  short,  fleshy, 
and  hollow.  It  has  been  mistaken  by  man  for  celery 
or  parsnip  with  fatal  results.  Animals  appear  very 
seldom  to  touch  this  plant,  and  sheep  and  goats  are 
said  to  be  but  little  inconvenienced  by  it.  Henslow 
remarks  that  "  It  is  regarded  as  being  the  most  poison- 
ous of  the  Umbellifers."  The  fleshy  rootstock  is  the 
most  toxic  part  of  the  plant,  the  poisonous  principle 
probably  being  the  same  as  in  Hemlock. 

Water  Dropwort  (CEnanthe  crocata  L.),  also  some- 
times termed  Water  Hemlock,  is  a  poisonous  plant 
which  is  much  more  frequently  the  cause  of  harm  to 
live  stock  than  C.  virosa.  It  is  a  weed  of  2  to  5  feet 
high,  which  occurs  in  marshes,  ditches,  and  other  wet 
places  from  Argyll  and  Elgin  southwards.  The  leaves 
are  large  and  compound,  with  much  divided  leaflets. 
The  flowers  are  white,  and  appear  about  July.  The 
stem  is  grooved,  hollow,  and  branched,  while  the  root 
fibres  are  fleshy  and  spindle-shaped.  This  plant, 
illustrated  in  Fig.  82,  is  a  perennial.  All  parts  are 


FIG.  82.— Water  Dropwort  (CEnanthe crocata  L.).  i.  Root,  reduced  ;  2.  Leaf,  x  \  ; 
3.  Inflorescence,  x  § ;  4.  Flower,  x  abcut  3;  5.  Fruit,  xf ;  6.  Single  fru'it, 
x  about  3. 


298 


COMMON    WEEDS 


poisonous,  especially  the 
fleshy  roots ;  the  leaves 
have  been  mistaken  by 
man  for  celery,  and  the 
roots  for  parsnips,  with 
fatal  results.  When 
ditches  are  cleaned  this 
plant  is  often  thrown  out 
on  the  banks,  and  cattle 
are  not  infrequently 
poisoned  by  eating  these 
clearings.  In  1898  cattle 
and  sheep  died  on  a  farm 
near  Bristol  (Journal Royal 
Agric.  Soc.j  1898)  through 
eating  Water  Dropwort. 
The  poisonous  principle  is 
(Enanthin.  Other  poison- 
ous species  of  CEnanthe 
are  met  with  in  Great 
Britain  .  in  damp  situa- 
tions. 

'  Fool's  Parsley  (£.thusa 
Cynapium  L.)  is  a  small 
annual  weed  of  gardens 
and  cultivated  fields,  at- 
taining to  a  height  of  2  feet 
(Fig.  83).  It  occurs  from 
Elgin  southward,  and  also 
in  Ireland.  The  foliage 
is  compound,  and  re- 
sembles parsley,  but  is 
very  dark  green  in  colour. 
The  flowers  are  white, 
of  true  parsley  being  yellow ;  they  appear  in 


FIG.  83.— Fool's  Parsley  (sEthusa  Cynapium  L.) 
x  about  §,  with  enlarged  flower  and  fruit. 


those 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  299 

July  to  August,  and  bear  long  drooping  bracts.  The 
roots  are  spindle-shaped,  resembling  radishes.  The 
plant  emits  a  nauseous  odour  when  bruised,  and  is  a 
virulent  poison,  all  parts  being  toxic.  The  foliage  and 
root  have  been  the  cause  of  death  owing  to  their  re- 
semblance respectively  to  parsley  and  radishes.  Animals 
appear  to  refuse  it  owing  to  its  fetid  odour.  The  toxic 
principle  is  an  alkaloid  called  Cynapine.  (See  also  p.  83.) 

ERICACE^ 

Rhododendrons  and  Azaleas  are  both  poisonous  in 
character,  some  kinds  especially  so.  Cornevin  says 
that  all  species  of  Rhododendron  are  suspected,  but 
mentions  in  particular  R.  ferrugineum  L.,  R.  hirsutum  L., 
R.  Chrysanthemum  L.,  and  R.  ponticum  L.  Both  English 
and  Belgian  veterinary  surgeons  have  published  records 
of  poisoning  of  sheep  and  goats  due  to  R.  pontt'cum, 
and  Cornevin  remarks  that  farmers  will  be  well  advised 
to  ensure  that  this  plant  be  always  kept  out  of  the 
reach  of  ruminants. 

Of  the  Azaleas,  Cornevin  takes  as  a  type  A.  pontica, 
which  he  says  is  a  very  poisonous  plant. 

BORAGINE^E 

Hound's  Tongue  (Cynoglossum  officinale  L.)  is  the  only 
member  of  the  order  Boragineae  which  need  be  men- 
tioned here.  It  is  found  in  fields  and  waste  places  in 
parts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  throughout  England 
and  Wales,  but  it  is  not  common.  Hound's  Tongue 
grows  to  a  height*  of  2  feet,  and  has  broad,  downy, 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  funnel-shaped  reddish-purple  or 
magenta  flowers  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  borne  in  long 
forked  clusters  or  cymes.  Flowering  takes  place  in 
June  and  July.  The  root  is  tapering  and  fleshy.  The 


300  COMMON    WEEDS 

plant  is  narcotic  and  astringent,  and  "  smells  like  mice  " 
(Hooker).  It  is  a  simple  vegetable  irritant,  causing 
nausea  and  purging  (Smith),  and  should  be  avoided. 

SOLANACE.E 

Deadly  Nightshade  or  Dwale  (Atropa  Belladonna  L.) 
is  not  so  widely  known  as  is  sometimes  believed,  many 
persons  confusing  it  with  Solanum  Dulcamara  L.  (p.  302). 
It  is  found  in  waste  places,  thickets,  and  banks,  "  especi- 
ally in  chalk  and  limestone  soils,  oftenest  near  ruins," 
according  to  Hooker,  who  says  that  it  occurs  "from 
Westmorland  southwards  ;  also  rare  and  near  houses 
in  Forfar,  Argyle,  and  Ireland."  The  author  has 
found  it  on  the  coast  of  Fife.  It  is  a  perennial 
branched  herbaceous  plant,  which  grows  from  2  to  5 
feet  high.  The  leaves  are  large,  oval,  and  pointed,  up 
to  8  inches  long,  downy,  and  tl  usually  in  unequal 
pairs."  The  flowers,  which  appear  between  June  and 
August,  are  bell-shaped  or  "tubular,"  and  about  i  inch 
in  length,  purple  in  colour,  sometimes  with  a  greenish 
tinge.  When  ripe  the  berries  are  black,  two-celled,  and 
contain  many  seeds.  The  fleshy  rootstock  is  stout  and 
creeping  (Fig.  84). 

Animals  and  man  suffer  in  varying  degrees  from  the 
effects  of  Dwale  poisoning,  but  animals  are  quite  un- 
likely ever  to  touch  the  plant.  The  root  is  the  most 
poisonous  part,  followed  by  the  leaves,  flowers,  and 
stem,  while  the  berries  are  least  poisonous.  The  last 
are,  however,  the  most  likely  to  be  eaten  by  children, 
and  care  should  always  be  exercised  where  this  plant  is 
known  to  occur.  Drying  the  plant  does  not  result  in 
getting  rid  of  the  poison.  The  toxic  principle  is  the 
alkaloid  Atropine,  and  the  drug  prepared  from  the  plant 
is  well  known  and  widely  used  in  medicine. 


FIG.  84.— Deadly  Nightshade  (Atropa  Belladonna  L.),  xf. 
i.  Calyx  and  pistil  enlarged. 


302  COMMON    WEEDS 

Henbane  (Hyoscyantus  niger  L.)  is  found  in  parts  of 
Scotland,  in  England,  and  in  Wales,  and  is  common  in 
Ireland.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  waste,  sandy  places,  fre- 
quently near  old  buildings,  and  we  have  found  it, 
almost  side  by  side  with  Atropa  Belladonna,  on  the  Fife 
coast  of  the  Firth  of  Forth.  It  is  a  hairy,  sticky  plant, 
annual  or  biennial,  with  a  strong  unpleasant  odour. 
It  grows  to  a  height  of  2  feet  ;  the  leaves  are  large, 
somewhat  toothed  and  oblong.  The  flowers  are  funnel- 
shaped,  upwards  of  an  inch  across,  yellow  in  colour, 
with  violet  or  purple  veins.  They  appear  between 
June  and  August.  The  seed  capsule  opens  by  means 
of  a  lid,  and  contains  many  seeds.  The  root  is  large 
and  thick,  and  has  been  eaten  instead  of  parsnips  and 
chicory  with  dangerous  results.  The  leaves  and  young 
shoots  have  been  used  as  a  vegetable,  and  children 
have  eaten  the  seeds  with  serious  effects. 

All  parts  of  Henbane  are  very  poisonous,  and  the 
toxic  principle,  the  alkaloid  Hyoscyamine,  is  not  de- 
stroyed either  by  drying  or  boiling.  In  general  animals 
will  not  eat  the  plant,  but  Cornevin  records  the  fact 
that  it  has  been  given  to  cows  mixed  with  other  fodder. 
Owing  to  the  general  habitat  of  the  plant,  however, 
this  occurrence  must  be  rare.  Nevertheless  care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  the  ingestion  of  any  part  of  Henbane, 
either  by  stock  or  by  man. 

Bitter-sweet  or  Woody  Nightshade  (Solanum  Dul- 
camara L.)  is  a  common  plant  of  woods  and  hedges, 
and,  although  quite  different  in  appearance,  is  fre- 
quently wrongly  termed  Deadly  Nightshade.  It  is 
generally  well  known  as  a  trailing  plant,  which  climbs 
freely  over  hedges.  The  leaves  are  oval  and  single  or 
trifoliate,  and  clusters  of  small  purple  flowers  on  slender 
stalks  spring  from  the  stem  above  a  leaf.  The  flowers 
at  once  remind  one  of  a  small  potato  blossom,  and,  like 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  303 

those  of  the  potato,  appear  from  June  to  August.  The 
rootstock  is  extensively  creeping,  and  the  plant  is  a 
perennial.  The  berries  are  oval,  and  red  or  scarlet  in 


FIG.  85. — Woody  Nightshade  (Solanum  Dulcamara  L.),  x£. 

colour  (Fig.  85).  To  the  taste  the  stem  of  the  plant 
is  at  first  bitter  and  then  sweetish,  hence  one  of  the 
common  names. 


304 


COMMON    WEEDS 


The   toxic  principle  is  the   alkaloid  Solanine,  which 
occurs  in  the  stem,  leaves,  and  berries,   and   there  is 

no  doubt  that  it  is 
poisonous  both  to 
man  and  to  farm 
live  stock.  Al- 
though stock  rarely 
touch  the  plant  it  is 
occasionally  taken, 
and  may  prove 
harmful.  A  case  is 
quoted  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society 
(1905),  in  which  it 
was  eaten  by  a  cow 
along  with  Meadow 
Saffron  with  fatal 
results. 

Black  Night- 
shade (Solanum  nig- 
rum  L.)  is  a  small 
branched  annual  of 
6  inches  to  2  feet 
in  height,  with  oval 
leaves  and  lateral 
clusters  of  small 
white  flowers,  which 
give  rise  to  black 
or  reddish-black 
berries  resembling 
black  currants.  The 

plant  (Fig.  86)  has  a  disagreeable  odour.  It  is  fre- 
quently a  troublesome  weed  in  gardens,  especially  when 
these  are  not  well  cared  for.  The  alkaloid  Solanine 


FIG.  86.— Garden  or  Black  Nightshade  (Solanum 
nigrum  L. ),  x^. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  305 

occurs  chiefly  in  the  berries,  and  to  some  extent  in 
the  stem  and  leaves.  Gohier,  according  to  Cornevin, 
gave  6J  Ib.  (3  kilos.)  in  the  green  state  to  a  horse, 
and  found  it  had  no  serious  effects.  Children,  how- 
ever, have  been  poisoned  by  the  berries,  and  suffered 
from  vertigo,  dilated  pupils,  nausea,  colic,  stertorous 
breathing,  and  convulsions  (Henslow). 

Mention  may  be  made  here  of  the  plant  termed  the 
"  Wonderberry,"  stated  to  be  a  hybrid  between  Solatium 
guineense  and  5.  villosum,  which  are  probably  varieties 
of  S.  nigrum.  As  grown  in  this  country,  the  "  Wonder- 
berry  "  cannot  be  distinguished  from  some  forms  of 
Solanum  nigrum  L.,  the  cosmopolitan  weed  just 
referred  to,  whose  fruits  are  said  to  be  edible  in  some 
countries  and  poisonous  in  others.  Fruits  of  the 
"  Wonderberry  "  were  found  by  Dr.  Greshoff,  of  Haar- 
lem, to  contain  more  Solanine  than  the  wild  English 
S.  nigrum  or  the  Canadian  form  known  as  "  Huckle- 
berry." The  fruits  should  certainly  not  be  eaten. 
See  also  Card.  Chron.,  1909,  pp.  172,  204,  393,  and 
291  (October  30). 

Thorn  Apple  (Datura  Stramonium  L.),  a  casual  weed, 
is  another  poisonous  plant  of  this  order.  It  is  an 
escape  from  cultivation,  being  a  North  American 
annual  plant.  The  illustration  (Fig.  87)  is  from 
plants  raised  in  1909  from  seed  saved  from  a  specimen 
discovered  in  the  author's  garden  in  1908.  The  Thorn 
Apple,  known  in  America  as  Jimson  Weed,  is  a  smooth, 
coarsely  growing  bushy  plant  about  2  feet  or  more 
high,  with  a  strong  smell,  and  large,  broad,  wavy 
leaves  with  toothed  margin.  The  flowers  are  white, 
large  and  funnel-shaped,  on  an  average  about  3  inches 
long,  and  open  in  June  and  July.  The  seed  capsules 
are  large,  like  a  prickly  horse-chestnut,  and  contain 
many  rough  black  seeds  which  are  somewhat  kidney- 


306  COMMON    WEEDS 

shaped,  and  very  resistant  to  the  usual  agents  of  de- 
struction. 

All  parts  of  the  plant  are  very  poisonous,  but  especi- 
ally the  seeds,  the  toxic  principle  being  stated  to  be  a 
mixture  of  the  alkaloids  Atropine  and  Hyoscyamine ;  its 


Photo,  1909.  H.  C.  Long. 

FIG.  87. — Thorn  Apple  (Datura  Stramonium  L.),  showing  tubular  flower, 
thorny  capsule  (centre),  and  root  (cut  off  and  crossed  behind  the  stem).  The 
holes  in  some  of  the  leaves  are  due  to  grubs. 

harmful  properties  are  not  destroyed  either  by  drying 
or  boiling.  Owing  to  its  disagreeable  odour  and  taste 
the  Thorn  Apple  is  not  likely  to  be  eaten  by  live  stock 
even  if  found,  and  the  accidents  which  have  occurred 
have  been  chiefly  among  children,  who  have  eaten  the 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  307 

half-ripe  sweetish  seeds;  several  cases  were  reported 
to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  the 
autumn  of  1897.  In  the  United  States  also  one  or  two 
cases  are  recorded  in  which  catfle  were  poisoned  by 
eating  the  leaves  of  young  plants  present  in  hay. 

The  Potato  (Solanum  tuberosum  L.)  is  a  member  of 
the  same  order,  and  contains  the  alkaloid  Solanine  in 
variable  proportions  in  the  green  parts,  and  to  some 
extent  in  "  greened "  tubers.  In  general,  however, 
the  tubers  may  be  eaten  with  impunity,  and  we  believe 
there  is  no  record  of  injury  to  man  from  the  potato 
plant.  Henslow  says  that  accidents  with  animals  are 
not  at  all  uncommon,  and  cattle  have  suffered  most. 
Sir  John  Macfadyean  (Principal,  Roy.  Vet.  College, 
London)  has  shown  that  old  sprouted  potatoes,  even 
after  boiling,  are  a  deadly  poison  to  horses.  In  1896 
eleven  horses  died  from  eating  in  most  instances  small 
quantities  of  sprouted  "  chat "  potatoes,  and  two  test- 
horses  fed  on  the  potatoes  died.  "  An  affected  animal 
seems  dull,  and  dies  within  twelve  hours  after  being 
first  observed,  without  evincing  any  sign  of  pain."  1 
We  know,  on  the  other  hand,  of  pigs  eating  consider- 
able quantities  of  potato  haulm  without  any  apparent 
ill-effect.  It  is  advisable,  however,  not  to  feed  the 
haulm  to  stock,  but  to  plough  or  dig  it  into  the  soil, 
except  when  diseased,  in  which  case  it  should  be 
burned. 

SCROPHULARIACE.E 

The  Foxglove  (Digitalis  purpurea  L.)  is  such  a  well- 
known  denizen  of  our  copses,  woods,  banks,  and  road- 
sides, that  a  description  is  almost  unnecessary.  It 
grows  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  and  is  erect  and  rugged 
in  appearance.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  a  foot  or 

1  Prof,  R.  Wallace,  Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain,  1907,  p.  505, 


3o8  COMMON    WEEDS 

more  in  length,  and  the  large  purple,  spotted,  pendulous 
flowers,  which  open  between  July  and  September, 
occur  in  dense  racemes.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are 
poisonous,  but  especially  the  seeds  ;  the  leaves  are  less 
active  after  the  flowering  period.  A  well-known  drug, 
namely,  the  glucoside  Digiialin,  is  prepared  from  the 
Foxglove.  The  toxic  principle  is  not  destroyed  by 
drying  the  plant.  As  animals  are  not  known  to  touch 
this  plant  in  the  open,  it  is  chiefly  of  human  interest. 
It  should  never  be  employed  as  a  medicinal  herb 
except  under  expert  advice,  and  it  should  never  be 
included  in  grass  made  into  hay  or  silage. 

POLYGONACE.E 

Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acelosella  L.),  dealt  with  at 
pp.  119,  204,  has  also  been  said  to  possess  poisonous 
properties  due  to  acid  oxalates  (binoxalate  of  potash, 
sold  as  salts  of  lemon),  and  Cornevin  states  that 
veterinary  surgeons  charge  it  with  poisoning  both 
horses  and  sheep. 

THYMELACE^: 

The  Spurge  Laurel  (Daphne  Laureola  L.)  is  an  ever- 
green shrub,  found  in  copses  and  banks  in  stiff  soil 
from  York  and  Durham  southwards.  It  bears  black 
berry-like  fruits,  which  are  very  acrid  and  poisonous, 
and  children  have  been  injured  by  eating  them.  On 
account  of  its  intense  bitter  flavour  the  plant  is  very 
rarely  touched  by  animals.  Another  shrubby  species 
with  pink  flowers,  which  appear  in  early  spring  before  the 
leaves,  is  Mezereon  (D.  Mezereum  L.).  It  is  found  in 
copses  and  woods,  and  is  similarly  poisonous. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  309 

EUPHORBIACE.E 

This  order  contains  a  number  of  very  poisonous 
plants  ;  of  these  five  may  be  noticed  here. 

Dog's  Mercury  (Mercurialis  perennis  L.)  is  a  weed  of 
woods,  hedges,  and  shady  places,  and  is  found  as  far 
north  as  the  Highlands.  It  is  a  hairy  plant  6  inches 
to  1 8  inches  high,  with  the  upper  ovate-lanceolate 
leaves  2  or  3  inches  long ;  the  lower  ones  are  smaller. 
The  flowers  are  minute  and  unisexual :  the  males 
and  females  occur  on  separate  plants  (Fig.  88),  and 
appear  in  March  and  April.  The  stem  is  erect  and 
solitary,  and  the  rootstock  slender  and  creeping.  The 
plant  is  a  perennial. 

The  juice  of  Dog's  Mercury  is  stated  to  be  emetic 
and  the  seeds  dangerously  purgative,  but  heat  usually 
destroys  the  poisonous  property  (Mercurialine,  Oil  of 
Euphorbia).  Owing  to  this  weed  having  a  disagreeable 
smell  it  is  rarely  touched  by  animals,  but  it  has  proved 
fatal  to  sheep,  and  to  horses  fed  on  herbage  containing 
it  cut  from  a  hedge. 

Annual  Mercury  (Mercurialis  annua  L.)  is  somewhat 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  foregoing  species,  but 
annual  only.  It  is  a  weed  found  in  fields,  gardens, 
and  on  waste  land  in  England,  and  is  met  with  as  a 
casual  weed  in  Scotland,  and  occasionally  in  Ireland. 
It  resembles  M.  perennis  in  its  poisonous  properties, 
but,  according  to  Cornevin,  it  has  been  used  as  a  pot 
herb  in  Germany.  Both  plants  should  be  altogether 
avoided,  however,  for  any  edible  purpose. 

Caper  Spurge  (Euphorbia  Lathyris  L.)  is  a  common 
weed  of  woods  and  copses  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  a 
biennial  herbaceous  plant,  being  short  and  leafy  in  the 
first  year,  and  3  feet  or  more  in  height  in  its  second 
year.  The  leaves  are  2  to  8  inches  long,  and  placed 


FIG.  88. — Dog's  Mercury  (Mercurialis  perennis  L.).  i.  Root,  x§;  2.  Male 
plant,  x§;  3.  Male  flower,  X2;  4.  Female  plant,  x§;  5.  Female  flower,  xa; 
6.  Fruit,  x  about  3. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  311 

opposite  one  another  on  the  stem  in  pairs.  Several 
male  flowers  are  associated  with  one  female  flower  in 
such  a  way  that  they  may  be  mistaken  for  a  single  tiny 
greenish  flower.  Flowering  takes  place  in  June  and 
July.  The  juice  of  this  plant  is  very  acrid,  and  the 
seeds  yield  a  violently  purgative  oil  ;  country  folk 
indeed  have  employed  the  seeds  as  a  purge,  and  have 
been  victims  of  their  imprudence.  When  the  seed  is 
taken  in  overdose  it  will  "  inflame  the  mouth  and 
stomach,  and  cause  intense  diarrhoea  and  vomiting. 
If  the  dose  is  sufficient,  there  will  be  nervous  disorders, 
unconsciousness,  general  collapse,  and  death." ]  In  the 
United  States  cattle  are  said  to  be  "  quite  resistant  to 
its  influence,  but  they  are  sometimes  overcome."  It 
appears  only  to  be  taken  by  young  animals,  and  cases 
of  poisoning  have  been  reported.  The  toxic  principle 
is  Eiiphorbin  and  Oil  of  Euphorbia. 

Box  (Buxus  sempervirens  L.)  is  a  well-known  ever- 
green shrub  or  small  tree  found  on  the  chalk  hills  of 
Kent  and  Surrey,  and  much  employed  in  garden 
decoration.  It  flowers  in  April  and  May,  and  may 
grow  from  3  to  15  feet  high.  All  parts  are  bitter,  and 
poisonous  both  to  animals  and  man.  Farm  stock  may 
occasionally  browse  upon  it,  but  only  rarely,  and  all 
clippings  should  be  disposed  of  in  such  a  way  that  they 
cannot  be  reached  by  stock.  The  disagreeable  odour 
and  bitter  taste  will  usually  tend  to  the  safety  of 
animals.  The  alkaloids  Buxin  and  Oil  of  Euphorbia  form 
the  toxic  principles  in  it. 

The  Castor  Oil  Plant  (Ricinus  communis  L.)  is  a 
foreign  plant,  sometimes  cultivated  in  Britain  as  an 
ornamental  plant.  The  seeds  are  poisonous,  and  injure 
fowls,  pigs  and  sheep,  and  man.  Eighty  sheep  are 
stated  by  Cornevin  to  have  been  killed  through  eating 

1  U.S.  Farmers  Bull.,  No.  86. 


312  COMMON    WEEDS 

the  refuse  from  the  crushing  of  the  seeds  for  oil.  The 
same  authority  says  that  the  residue  has  more  pro- 
nounced properties  than  the  oil  itself.  It  has  been 
found  as  an  impurity  in  linseed  cake  and  maize  meal 
{Jour.  Roy.  Agric.  Soc.,  1892). 


CONIFERS 

The  Yew  (Taxus  baccata  L.)  is  one  of  our  most 
poisonous  plants,  but  although  the  wood,  bark,  leaves, 
and  seeds  are  all  injurious,  the  scarlet  mucilaginous 
cup  enveloping  the  ripe  seed  may  be  eaten  with 
impunity.  The  old  leaves  and  shoots  are  the  most 
poisonous  parts,  and  as  they  have  no  noxious  flavour, 
cattle  and  horses  readily  eat  them.  Trimmings  which 
have  been  carelessly  thrown  down  have  also  poisoned 
animals  which  have  eaten  them.  Stock  are  perhaps 
more  easily  tempted  to  browse  on  the  dark  green  foliage 
in  winter,  when  they  get  more  dry  food  than  usual. 

Many  cases  of  fatal  human  poisoning  by  Yew 
have  occurred.  In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  several  cases  of  poisoning  of  farm  stock  are 
mentioned  (a  horse  in  1885,  deer  and  horses  in  1893, 
shorthorns  in  1893).  Many  instances,  however,  have 
been  recorded  in  which  no  fatal  result  has  followed 
from  eating  the  leaves,  and  it  appears  that  the  lower 
branches  of  Yew  trees  in  parks  and  grounds  are  con- 
stantly cropped  by  cattle  without  any  ill-effects  (Trans. 
Chem.  Soc.,  1902  ;  Jour.  Board  Agric.,  1903).  Some  un- 
certainty exists  as  to  the  nature  of  the  toxic  principle, 
but  the  numerous  recorded  cases  of  fatal  effects  from 
eating  the  leaves  of  the  Yew  afford  sufficient  evidence 
that,  under  some  circumstances,  the  tree  contains  an 
active  poisonous  principle,  which  is  believed  by  some 
authorities  to  be  an  alkaloid  named  Taxine. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  313 

Cornevin  found  by  experiment  with  leaves  in  autumn 
and  winter  that  to  cause  death  it  would  be  necessary 
to  ingest  the  following  weight  of  leaves  :  — 

Horse    .      .      .  .  0.2  Ib.  per  100  Ib.  live  weight. 

Ass  and  Mule.  .  0.16  ,,  ,,  ,, 

Cow.     .     .    £  .  i.o  „  „  ,, 

Sheep     .     .     .  i.o  ,,  „  „ 

Goat       .     .     .  .  1.2 


. 
Rabbit    .      ./  .      .      2.0       „ 

Clippings  from  Yew  trees  should  never  be  thrown 
down  where  they  can  be  eaten  by  stock,  and  where 
Yew  trees  overhang  hedges  near  pastures  it  is  advisable 
to  have  them  lopped  back  to  a  distance  out  of  reach 
of  grazing  stock. 

Cupressus  poisoning  has  also  been  recorded, 
two  instances  coming  to  the  notice  of  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  and  Fisheries  in  1905  ;  the  death  of  cattle 
was  attributed  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  C.  macrocarpa 
and  C.  nootkatensis.  In  one  instance  four  bullocks  died, 
and  in  another  three  heifers  were  stated  to  have 
suffered  from  irritant  poison,  one  of  them  having  died. 
The  Board  had  then  no  information  as  to  the  poisonous 
properties  of  the  two  species  of  Cupressus  referred  to, 
and  stated  that  no  record  could  be  found  of  any 
similar  case  which  would  tend  to  confirm  the  suspicion 
that  these  trees  are  poisonous  to  cattle. 

AMENTACE^: 

The  Oak  (Quercus  sp.).  —  The  ingestion  of  acorns  has 
frequently  caused  serious  losses  among  young  cattle  up 
to  two  years  old,  as  in  1808,  1870,  1884,  anc*  1900. 
Cattle  over  three  years  old  were  seldom  affected,  while 


314  COMMON    WEEDS 

sheep  and  pigs  did  not  appear  to  be  susceptible  to  the 
poisonous  property  of  the  acorns.  Acorn  poisoning  is 
not  properly  understood,  but  it  is  quite  distinct  from 
indigestion  due  to  eating  an  excessive  quantity  of 
acorns.  As  the  acorns  are  most  likely  to  be  eaten 
in  long,  dry,  and  hot  summers,  when  herbage  on  the 
pastures  is  scarce,  efforts  should  in  such  cases  be  made 
to  keep  cattle  off  areas  where  acorns  are  abundant. 
Sheep  and  pigs  appear  to  be  almost  immune  to  the 
poisonous  action  of  acorns.  No  remedy  is  known  (see 
Board  of  Agriculture  Leaflet,  No.  13,  and  Jour.  Royal 
Agric.  Soc.,  1871). 


Meadow  Saffron  (Colchicum  autumnale  L.)  is  a  peren- 
nial plant  with  whitish  or  pale  purple  flowers,  closely 
resembling  crocuses  (Fig.  89).  The  long,  broad, 
lanceolate,  dark  green  leaves  are  produced  in  spring, 
while  the  flowers,  two  or  three  from  a  corm,  bloom  in 
succession  from  August  to  October,  soon  dying  down. 
Curiously  enough  the  seed-vessel  remains  beneath  the 
surface  until  the  next  spring,  when  it  appears  above 
ground  with  the  leaves.  The  bulb-like  fleshy  under- 
ground stems  (corms)  are  about  the  size  of  small  tulip 
bulbs,  and  lie  from  6  to  10  inches  deep  in  the  soil. 
This  plant  occurs  in  meadows  from  the  far  north  of 
England  to  the  south  coast,  and  has  been  reported  to 
the  author  as  especially  plentiful  in  Herefordshire  and 
parts  of  South  Wales.  It  appears  to  occur  especially 
on  limestone  soils. 

C.  autumnale  has  received  many  names  more  or  less 
characteristic  of  its  growth,  e.g.  Autumn  Crocus,  Meadow 
Crocus,  Naked  Ladies.  It  is  poisonous  in  all  its  parts, 
and  many  cases  of  poisoning  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep 


FIG.  89. — Meadow  Saffron  (Colchicum  autumnale  L. ).  i.  Flowering  corm  (late 
summer  and  autumn) ;  2.  Leaves  and  seed-vessel  (spring) ;  3.  Cross  section 
of  seed-vessel.  All  x§. 


316  COMMON    WEEDS 

have  been  recorded.  Poisoning  may  occur  in  spring 
owing  to  the  leaves  and  seed-vessels  being  eaten  in 
the  open,  or  when  dried  in  hay,  or  to  the  cropping  of 
the  blooms  in  late  summer  and  autumn.  "  As  the  plant 
is  most  injurious  to  animals  and  man,  it  should  be  de- 
stroyed in  fields,  for  cattle  will  sometimes  crop  the 
leaves  in  the  spring."  l  Cornevin  found  by  experiment 
that  the  ingestion  of  8  to  10  grams  of  green  leaves 
per  kilogram  of  live  weight,  say  3  to  5  Ib.  for  an 
average  cow,  was  sufficient  to  cause  death  to  ruminants. 
It  would  appear  also  that  if  a  small  quantity  be  eaten 
each  day  with  other  food,  the  effects  may  accumulate 
and  lead  to  fatal  results.  Further,  the  poisonous  prin- 
ciple, Colchicine,  is  not  volatile,  and  not  removed  by 
drying  the  plants,  hence  hay  containing  the  dried 
leaves  may  cause  trouble.  "  It  is  an  irritant  poison, 
causing  violent  purging.  This  plant  was  the  probable 
cause  of  the  cows  dropping  their  calves,  the  farmer 
having  lost  between  eighty  and  ninety  calves." 2 

It  has  been  stated  by  Stebler  and  Schroeter 3  that 
Meadow  Saffron  abounds  in  meadows  in  Switzerland, 
and  is  poisonous  both  in  hay  and  in  the  field.  Cases 
of  poisoning  of  animals  and  human  beings  are  of 
yearly  occurrence.  In  general,  cattle  avoid  the  plant 
both  in  the  meadows  and  in  the  stalls,  but  young  animals 
are  often  poisoned,  and  in  early  spring,  when  cattle 
stall-fed  in  winter  are  turned  out  to  grass,  poisoning 
frequently  occurs.  Sheep  and  goats  appear  to  be  more 
or  less  immune  and  eat  the  leaves,  but  pigs  are  very 
sensitive. 

Since  this  plant  is  so  poisonous  it  should  be  eradi- 
cated wherever  found.  As  the  corms  are  deep-seated 
they  can  only  be  dug  out  by  hand  on  small  areas,  but 

1  English  Botany,  vol.  ix.  p.  225.  2  Jour.  R.A.S.E.,  1905. 

3  Matten  und  IVeiden  der  Schweiz,  vol.  ix.  p.  209. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  317 

where  the  patches  are  large  in  extent  the  best  plan 
appears  to  be  to  pull  off  the  leaves  as  fast  as  they  ap- 
pear in  spring,  while  when  flowers  appear  they  can  be 
cut  down  or  similarly  pulled  off.  All  parts  removed 
should  be  burned.  If  the  leaves  be  hand  pulled  for 
one  or  two  seasons,  says  Percival,  there  is  no  necessity 
to  dig  up  the  corms,  the  plant  being  readily  exter- 
minated. 

Herb  Paris  (Paris  quadrifolia  L.)  is  found  in  damp 
woods,  especially  on  chalk  soils,  from  Renfrew  and  Moray 
southwards.  It  grows  6  to  12  inches  high,  on  a  stem 
which  usually  bears  four  somewhat  oval  leaves  arranged 
in  a  whorl.  From  the  centre  of  the  whorl  a  single 
upright  flower  stalk  arises  bearing  a  solitary  green 
flower,  which  later  produces  a  black  berry.  The  root- 
stock  is  white  and  creeping,  and  the  plant  perennial. 

All  parts  of  Herb  Paris  are  poisonous,  it  being  an 
emetic  and  narcotic ;  the  rootstock  is  purgative.  The 
toxic  principle  is  the  glucoside  Paradin.  Stock  are  un- 
likely to  meet  with  this  plant  except  in  fields  bordering 
open  woods  or  plantations. 

Lily-of-the- Valley  (Convallaria  majalis  L.)  is  uncommon 
in  the  wild  state,  but  occurs  in  certain  woods  from 
Moray  to  the  southern  countries,  and  is  abundant  in 
some  districts.  Flowering  occurs  in  May  and  June. 
No  description  is  necessary,  the  plant  being  well  known. 
All  parts  are  poisonous,  but  the  flowers  are  the  most 
dangerous.  Farm  stock  are  hardly  likely  to  touch  this 
plant  owing  to  its  habitat,  but  its  poisonous  character 
should  be  borne  in  mind  in  districts  where  it  occurs 
wild. 

AROIDE^E 

Lords  and  Ladies,  or  Cuckoo  Pint  (Arum  maculatum 
L.),  is  one  of  the  best  known  plants  of  the  countryside, 


318  COMMON    WEEDS 

being  commonly  present  in  woods,  hedge  banks,  and 
along  the  sides  of  ditches.  It  is  a  great  favourite  of 
children,  and  is  easily  recognised  by  the  long-stalked 
leaves,  shaped  like  an  arrow-head  and  often  spotted 
with  black,  and  by  its  large  yellowish-green  spathe  or 
leaf-like  bract  which  encloses  the  pale  purple  spadix,  at 
the  base  of  which  appear  the  crowded  scarlet  berries 
after  the  flowering  period.  This  plant  is  of  no  agri- 
cultural importance  as  a  weed  in  the  usual  sense  of 
the  word,  though  it  occurs  occasionally  in  meadows  ;  it 
must,  however,  be  mentioned  on  account  of  its  poisonous 
properties.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are  deleterious,  and 
children  who  have  eaten  the  tempting  berries  have  been 
fatally  poisoned.  The  bruised  leaves  emit  a  disagree- 
able odour,  and  the  plant  is  not  spontaneously  eaten  by 
farm  live  stock,  although  pigs  have  eaten  the  tuber-like 
corms  (which  are  renewed  annually  at  the  base  of  the 
stem)  and  suffered  in  consequence,  though  we  believe 
that  no  fatal  results  are  recorded. 

The  poisonous  property  is  destroyed  by  drying,  and 
corms  have  been  used  for  human  food  for  the  starch 
which  they  contain  ;  when  ground  to  a  pulp,  and  baked 
and  powdered,  the  material  is  sometimes  known  as 
Portland  arrowroot.  Owing  also  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
used  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  for  stiffening  ruffs 
and  frills  it  has  been  called  Starch-wort,  and  the  fol- 
lowing quotation  from  Gerarde's  Herbal!  is  interesting: 
"The  most  pure  and  white  starch  is  made  of  the  rootes 
of  the  Cuckow-pint ;  but  most  hurtfull  for  the  hands 
of  the  laundresse  that  hath  the  handling  of  it ;  for  it 
choppeth,  blistereth,  and  maketh  the  hands  rough  and 
rugged,  and  withall  smarting."  In  his  Natural  History  of 
Selborne  Gilbert  White  states  that  he  observed  the  root 
of  the  Cuckoo-pint  to  be  "  frequently  scratched  out  of 
the  dry  banks  of  hedges,  and  eaten  in  severe  snowy 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  319 

weather  "  by  thrushes  ;  he  also  noticed  that  pheasants 
frequently  eat  the  berries. 


GRAMINE^E 

Darnel  (Loliuni  temulentum  L.)  was  formerly  a  fairly 
common  plant  in  cornfields.  It  is  an  annual  much  resem- 
bling L.  perenne  (Ryegrass),  but  without  stolons,  and  the 
spikelets  are  similarly  placed  edgeways  on  the  flowering 
stem,  in  this  respect  differing  from  Triticum  repens 
(Couch  Grass).  The  empty  outer  glume  generally 
exceeds  the  spikelet  in  length,  this  point  effectively  dis- 
tinguishing it  from  Z.  perenne..  It  attains  to  2  feet  in 
height,  and  flowers  from  June  to  August  (Fig.  90).  The 
whole  plant  is  quite  suitable  as  food  for  stock  before 
the  seeding  stage  is  reached,  only  the  grain  being 
poisonous,  and  this  not  invariably  so.  It  is  harmful 
both  to  men  and  animals,  though  it  has  been  eaten  in 
the  form  of  bread  with  impunity,  and  Henslow  says 
that  "  Though  poisonings  have  been  frequent,  deaths 
have  been  rare."  The  poisonous  properties  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  a  small  fungus  in  the  seed  ;  it  is  said 
that  the  dangerous  properties  are  most  conspicuous  in 
wet  seasons.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  seeds 
of  Darnel  are  not  ground  up  with  wheat  into  flour, 
while  equal  care  should  be  observed  that  none  are  sown 
with  seed  corn. 


FUNGI — ASCOMYCETES 

Ergot  (Claviceps  purpurea  Tul.)  is  a  fungus  which  is 
parasitic  on  rye  and  various  grasses.  It  has  frequently 
been  accused  of  causing  abortion  among  cows,  which 
have  ingested  it  with  the  plants  which  it  attacks.  Some 


FIG.  90.— Darnel  (Lolium  temukntum  L.),  xf,  with  spikelet  enlarged. 


POISONOUS    PLANTS  321 

authorities  consider  that  there  is  little  ground  for  such 
a  belief ;  but  its  poisonous  qualities  are  undoubted,  and 
"serious  poisoning  effects,  resulting  in  numbness,  para- 
lysis, and  gangrene  of  the  extremities,  are  rapidly  pro- 
duced when  animals  are  fed  with  considerable  quantities 
of  ergoted  hay  "  (Percival). 

"  Want  ye  corn  for  bread  ? 
'Twas  full  of  darnel  :  Do  you  like  the  taste  ?  " 

— SHAKESPEARI-:,  i  Henry  VI. ,  Act  iii.  sc.  2. 


CHAPTER   IX 

WEEDS   OF   PONDS,   RIVERS,  AND    DITCHES 

MANY  plants  are  specially  adapted  to  live  in  water, 
either  (i)  floating  free  and  unattached  to  the  soil,  in 
which  case  they  derive  their  nourishment  entirely  from 
substances  dissolved  in  the  water  ;  or  (2)  with  their  roots 
in  the  mud  or  soil  forming  the  bed  of  the  river  or  pond  ; 
in  the  latter  case  the  materials  necessary  for  growth  are 
taken  by  the  roots  from  the  soil,  and  also  in  part  from 
the  water  by  means  of  the  leaves  of  the  plants. 

When  allowed  to  grow  without  interference  water 
plants  become  troublesome  in  rivers,  ponds,  lakes,  and 
ditches,  and  much  expense  must  be  incurred  in  keeping 
them  down.  Some  of  them  choke  the  small  streams 
and  ditches  in  which  they  grow,  and  prevent  the  free 
drainage  of  water  from  adjoining  land.  Flooding  of 
low-lying  areas  may  arise  through  the  blocking  of  water- 
courses by  this  class  of  weeds,  and  pasture  and  arable 
land  may  thus  be  made  less  valuable  for  grazing  pur- 
poses or  the  cultivation  of  cereals  and  other  farm  crops. 
Canals  and  navigable  rivers  are  frequently  made  almost 
impassable  for  traffic  by  the  growth  of  water  plants. 
Boating  and  bathing  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers  may  be 
rendered  difficult  and  dangerous  by  them,  and  their 
presence  in  abundance  may  ruin  the  water  for  angling 
purposes.  Skating  may  also  be  spoilt  by  floating  weeds. 

Many  plants  found  by  the  sides  of  streams  and  ditches 

322 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      323 

are  poisonous  and  dangerous  to  stock  which  have  access 
to  them,  and  others  entail  much  expense  and  annoyance 
by  invading  cultivated  watercress  beds. 

Water  plants  exhibit  very  striking  adaptations  to  their 
environment.  Some  of  them,  such  as  Water  Lilies  and 
certain  kinds  of  Potamogeton  and  Cham,  are  only  met 
with  in  fairly  deep  water,  while  others,  such  as  Rushes, 
Reed  Grass,  Yellow  Iris,  and  Marsh  Marigold,  are  chiefly 
found  in  shallow  water  by  the  margins  of  ponds  and 
streams.  Brooklime  and  some  forms  of  Water  Crow- 
foot inhabit  running  streams  ;  other  plants  are  adapted 
to  the  stagnant  or  slow-moving  water  of  ponds  and 
canals. 

A  fairly  marked  succession  of  zones  of  vegetation  is 
frequently  observable  at  the  sides  of  ponds,  lakes,  and 
slow-moving  rivers.  At  the  extreme  edge,  where  the 
water  joins  the  dry  land,  the  ordinary  herbage  of  the 
field  is  intermingled  with  plants  such  as  Caltha  palustris, 
Ranunculus  Flammula,  Pedicularis  palustris,  and  various 
kinds  of  Juncus  and  Carex,  which  can  grow  freely  in 
water-logged  soil.  In  somewhat  deeper  water  other 
species  of  Carex,  Yellow  Iris,  Water  Mint,  and  Phrag- 
mites  communis  often  predominate.  Further  in  are  seen 
the  Bulrushes  (Scirpus  lacustris  and  S.  Taberncemontani) 
and  Equisetum  limosum ;  the  yellow  and  white  Water 
Lilies  appear  usually  in  from  6  to  12  feet  of  water, 
while  many  of  the  Potamogetons  are  found  only  where 
the  water  is  12  to  24  feet  deep. 

Fresh  water  Algae  and  species  of  Chara  and  Nitella 
frequently  cover  the  bed  of  the  pond  or  lake  in  the 
deepest  parts. 

In  the  surface  water  all  over  the  pond,  down  to  a 
depth  of  8  or  9  feet,  there  are  often  present  a  vast 
number  of  Diatoms,  Desmids,  and  other  very  minute 
Algae,  forming  the  plankton  or  free  floating  vegetation. 


324 


COMMON    WEEDS 


The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  weeds 
of  ditches,  ponds,  and  streams  : — 


RANUNCULACE^E 

Water  Crowfoot. — Under  this  name  may  be  grouped 
a  number  of  aquatic  Rammculi,  which  from  a  botanical 
point  of  view  are  closely  related  and  difficult  to  dis- 


FIG.  91.— Water  Crowfoot  (Ranunculus peltatus  Fries.),  nat.  size. 

tinguish  from  each  other.  They  have  white  flowers 
with  a  yellow  centre  ;  most  of  them  have  stems  many 
feet  long ;  in  some  species  only  submerged,  finely 
divided  leaves  are  present,  while  others  have  in  addition 
leaves  with  flat-lobed  segments  which  float  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water. 

The  following  may  be  noted  :— 

R.  heterophyllus  Fries. — Floating  leaves,  three-  to  five- 
lobed,  nearly  circular  in  outline ;  submerged  leaves, 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES     325 

composed  of  long,  thin,  branch-like  segments  which  are 
weak  and  collapse  into  the  form  of  a  paint  brush  when 
lifted  out  of  the  water. 

R.  peltatus  Fries,  resembles  this,  but  the  segments  of 
the  submerged  leaves  are  more  rigid,  and  do  not  close 
up  when  they  are  taken  from  the  water  (Fig.  91). 

R.  trichophyllus  Chaix.,  found  chiefly  in  stagnant  water, 
has  black,  rigid,  submerged  leaves,  with  short  flower 
stalks  and  few  or  no  floating  leaves. 

R.  fluitans  Lamk.  has  long  peduncles  to  the  flowers  ; 
leaves  like  the  preceding.  The  plant  is  found  usually 
in  running  water. 

Lesser  Spearwort  (R.  Flammula  L.).  —  See  pp.  15  5,  279. 

Greater  Spearwort  (R.  Lingua  L.)  is  a  somewhat  rare 
species,  with  flowers  like  a  large  yellow  buttercup,  ij 
to  2  inches  in  diameter  ;  it  is  found  in  marshes  and 
ditches.  The  leaves  are  long  and  undivided,  lanceolate, 
with  their  base  partly  clasping  the  hollow,  smooth  stem. 

Celery-leaved  Crowfoot  (R.  sceleratus  L.).  —  See   pp. 


Marsh  Marigold  (Caltha  palustris  L.)  is  a  well-known 
inhabitant  of  marshy  places  and  ditches.  The  leaves 
are  roundish  or  kidney-shaped,  and  the  flowers  golden- 
yellow,  i  to  2  inches  in  diameter. 


Yellow  Water-lily  (Nuphar  luteum  L.)  is  common  in 
lakes  and  ditches  which  are  from  6  to  12  or  15  feet 
deep.  It  possesses  a  strong  creeping  rootstock,  which 
is  buried  in  the  mud  below.  The  leaves  are  leathery, 
circular,  and  deeply  divided  at  the  base  ;  some  of  them 
are  submerged,  others  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  yellow  flowers,  over  2  inches  across,  have 
eighteen  to  twenty  petals,  and  smell  like  brandy.  The 


326 


COMMON    WEEDS 


plant  is  spread  by  means  of  its  rootstock  and  by  small 
seeds,  which  ripen  into  a  berry  above  water. 

The  White  Water-lily  (Nymphcea  alba  L.)  is  also 
found  in  slow-moving  streams  and  in  ponds  of  clear 
water.  The  leaves  have  very  long  stalks  and  floating 
leaf-blades,  which  are  circular,  with  cordate  base.  It  is 
propagated  by  its  strong  fleshy  rootstock,  and  by  the 
seeds  which  are  produced  in  a  capsule  ripening  under 
water. 

HALORAGE^: 

Mare's  Tail  (Hippuris  vulgaris  L.)  is  a  common 

aquatic  perennial  at  the 
edges  of  ponds  and  slow- 
moving  streams.  It  has  a 
stout  creeping  rootstock,  and 
erect  round  stems  about  £ 
to  J  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter (Fig.  92).  The  leaves 
are  very  narrow/  about  an 
inch  long,  and  arranged  in 
whorls  six  to  twelve  to- 
gether at  each  of  the  many 
joints. 

The  flowers  are  green, 
very  small,  with  no  petals, 
and  only  one  stamen. 

Water  Starwort  (Calli- 
triche  vema  L.)  is  a  very 
variable  species,  abundantly 

i>.  92. — J-,en :    vvaieroiarwomoa^z-  .                        «     •         /« 

triche    verna    L.),     x  |.      Right:  distributed    111    the    Water    of 

Mare's  Tail  (Hippuris  vulgarisL.),  nnnriB       rUtrhpc        onH       clnw 

x  i,  with  fruit  enlarged.  ponds,     QltCneS,      and      SlOW 

streams      throughout      the 

country,  and  often  found  growing  on  mud  by  the  side 
of  ponds.     Watercress  growers  frequently  complain  of 


FIG.  92.— Left :  Water  Starwort 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      327 

it  as  a  pest.  The  typical  form  (Fig.  92)  has  delicate 
submerged  round  stems  ;  the  leaves  are  opposite ;  those 
under  water  are  narrow  and  linear,  others,  which  float 
on  the  surface,  being  broader,  generally  spathulate,  and 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  characteristic  rosette.  The 
flowers  are  very  small, 
unisexual,  the  males  with 
a  single  stamen,  the  fe- 
males with  two  whitish 
bracts  and  a  four-celled 
ovary. 

C.  autumnalis  L.  is  a 
species  with  dark  green 
submerged  leaves  only. 

Water  Milfoil  (Myrio- 
phyllum  alterniflorum  DC.) 
is  a  frequent  pest  in 
lakes,  ponds,  and  ditches, 
especially  in  hilly  dis- 
tricts. It  has  a  creeping 
rootstock,  and  long,  thin 
floating  submerged  stems 
which  bearwhorlsof  very 
finely  divided  leaves. 

The  sexual  organs  are 
usually  separated  in  dif- 

r  i,  'ii  FIG.  93. — Water  Milfoil  (Myriophyllum 

ferent  small,  axillary  3  verticiiiatumi.\  x|.    ' 

white  flowers. 

In  speaking  of  the  damage  by  water-weeds  to  boat- 
ing and  angling  in  the  Scotch  lakes,  Sir  Herbert 
Maxwell  says *  he  would  prefer  to  contend  with  the 
troublesome  pest  Elodea  (see  p.  332)  than  with  Myrio- 
phyllum. The  latter  is  "  rampant  every  year  "  after  mid- 
summer; Elodea  only  once  in  six  or  seven  seasons. 

1  Scotsman,  Oct.  7,  1897. 


328  COMMON    WEEDS 

Myriophyllum  verticillatum  L.  (Fig.  93)  is  another 
common  species  of  Water  Milfoil  very  closely  resembling 
the  one  already  mentioned,  but  with  stronger  stems 
and  more  leaves  in  a  whorl.  The  flowering  spike  is 
erect  when  in  bud,  that  of  M.  alterniflorum  being 
curved  at  the  tip. 

UMBELLIFER.E 

Many  umbelliferous  plants  are  inhabitants  of  wet 
places,  or  grow  in  water  at  the  sides  of  rivers  and 
ponds  and  in  ditches.  The  following  are  often  trouble- 
some weeds  in  such  situations  :— 

Marshwort  (Apium  nodiflorum  Reich.)  is  a  pest  with 
the  habit  of  watercress,  and  sometimes  found  in  water- 
cress beds.  The  stem  is  procumbent,  i  to  3  feet,  with 
roots  at  the  joints.  The  leaves  are  pinnate  or  trifoliate, 
the  leaflets  being  usually  ovate  with  blunt  irregular  ser- 
rations. The  flowers  are  white,  in  umbels  placed 
opposite  to  the  leaves,  and  open  from  July  to  August. 

Apium  inundatum  R.  is  an  allied  plant,  which  grows 
generally  in  deeper  water.  It  has  creeping  or  floating 
stems,  and  most  of  the  leaves  are  submerged,  with  fine 
linear  segments.  The  leaves  at  the  surface  of  the 
water  have  pinnate,  wedge-shaped  leaflets.  The  flowers 
and  umbels  are  very  small,  appearing  from  June  to 

July. 

Water  Parsnip  (Stum  angustifolium  L.)  is  a  common 
ditch  plant,  with  creeping  rootstock  and  erect  round 
stem,  i  to  3  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  4  to  8  inches 
long,  pinnate,  the  leaflets  ovate  and  irregularly  lobed. 
The  umbels  of  white  flowers  are  lateral,  opposite  the 
leaves,  flowering  taking  place  in  August. 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      329 


VALERIANACE.E 

Valerian  or  All-heal  (Valeriana  officinalis  L.)  is  a 
frequent  inhabitant  of  ditches  and  marshy  places  by 
ponds  and  rivers.  It  is  a  tall  plant,  2  to  4  feet  high, 
with  pinnate  leaves,  having  four  to  ten  pairs  of  lanceo- 
late and  usually  serrate  leaflets  and  one  terminal  leaflet. 
The  flowers  have  five-lobed  pale  pink  corollas,  and  are 
arranged  in  terminal  corymbose  clusters,  opening  in 
June  to  July. 

COMPOSITES 

Hemp-Agrimony  (Eupaforium  cannabinum  L.)  is  a 
widely  distributed  plant,  found  on  the  banks  of  streams 
and  in  wet  ditches.  The  stems  are  usually  2  to  4  feet 
high,  round  and  woolly ;  the  leaves  consist  of  three 
to  five  lanceolate-serrated  segments.  The  flowers 
are  pale  reddish -purple  in  colour,  and  arranged  in 
dense  terminal  corymbs ;  they  appear  from  July  to 
September. 

SCROPHULARIACEJi: 

Marsh  Figwort  (Scrophularia  aquatica  L.)  is  often 
abundant  on  the  edges  of  ponds,  rivers,  and  ditches, 
where  it  impedes  the  flow  of  water  and  interferes  with 
angling. 

It  has  a  well  developed  creeping  rootstock  and  erect, 
square,  winged  stems,  smooth  below,  2  to  4  feet  high. 
The  leaves  are  opposite,  oblong-lanceolate,  with  cordate 
base  and  crenate-serrate  margins.  The  flower  is  two- 
lipped,  green  below  and  dark  purple  in  its  upper 
portion,  the  corolla  tube  bulging. 

Knotted  Figwort  (S.  nodosa  L.)  grows  in  somewhat 
drier  situations.  It  has  a  tuberous  knotted  rootstock, 
and  leaves  with  doubly  serrate  margins,  the  serrations 


330  COMMON    WEEDS 

at  the  base  being  much  larger  than  those  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  leaves. 

Speedwells. — Belonging  also  to  this  order  are  Water 
Speedwell  (Veronica  Anagallis  L.)  and  Brooklime  (var. 
Beccabunga  L.),  two  weeds  frequently  found  in  ditches 
and  watery  places.  The  former  has  stout,  erect, 
smooth  stems,  which  are  succulent  and  hollow,  and 
i  to  2  feet  high  ;  below  are  creeping  stolons.  The 
leaves  are  lanceolate-serrate,  sessile,  and  partly  clasp- 
ing the  stem.  The  flowers  have  a  pale  lilac  corolla, 
and  are  in  long  racemes. 

Brooklime  has  procumbent  stems,  which  take  root  at 
the  joints,  and  stalked  ovate  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  previous  species,  and  are 
sometimes  bright  blue  or  pink. 

LABIATE 

Belonging  to  this  order  are  the  Mints,  several 
species  of  which  are  abundant  in  wet  places  by  rivers 
and  ponds.  They  have  subterranean  creeping  rhi- 
zomes, and  spread  very  rapidly,  often  tending  to  block 
up  ditches  and  prevent  free  movement  of  water. 

Capitate  Mint  (Mentha  aqualica  L.)  is  perhaps  the 
commonest  of  such  species.  It  has  stems  12  to  18 
inches  high,  with  stalked  ovate  or  cordate  woolly  leaves, 
and  somewhat  dense  spikes  of  lilac  labiate  flowers. 

Skull-cap  (Scutellaria  galericulala  L.)  is  another  Labiate 
common  on  the  banks  of  streams  and  in  ditches.  It 
grows  from  6  to  12  inches  high,  has  oblong-lanceolate 
leaves  with  serrated  or  crenated  margins,  and  blue 
labiate  flowers  two-thirds  of  an  inch  long,  placed  singly 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stems. 

Marsh  Woundwort  (Stachys  palnstris  L.)  is  very 
common  in  similar  situations  to  the  last  species.  It 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      331 

has  spikes  of  dull  purple  labiate  flowers.  The  root- 
stock  creeps  extensively,  and  from  it  grow  upright 
stems  i^  to  2  feet  high,  with  somewhat  narrow  ovate- 
lanceolate  and  almost  sessile  leaves. 


POLYGONACEJi 

Great  Water-dock  (Rumex  Hydrolapathum  Huds.)isa 
widely  distributed  and  characteristic  river-side  plant,  and 
the  largest  of  the  British 
Docks.  The  stems  are 
stout,  branched,  and  3 
to  5  feet  high,  with 
oblong-lanceolate  leaves, 
which  are  cordate  at  the 
base,  and  sometimes 
more  than  a  foot  long. 
The  flowering  panicle  is 
leafless,  with  crowded 
whorls  of  flowers. 


CERATOPHYLLACE^: 

Hornwort  (Cerato- 
phyllum  demersum  L.)  is 
a  locally  distributed 
aquatic  plant,  com- 
pletely submerged  in 
the  water  of  ponds  and 
ditches.  It  possesses 
long  slender  stems  and 
leaves  in  whorls  (Fig. 
94).  The  leaves  are 
usually  dark  green,  much  divided  into  narrow,  toothed 
segments,  and  about  an  inch  long.  The  flowers  are 


FIG.  94. — Hornwort  (Ceratophyllum 
demersum  L.),  x§. 


332 


COMMON    WEEDS 


small  and  monoecious,  with   many  stamens,   and  one- 
celled  ovary. 

HYDROCHARIDACE^E 

Water-thyme :  Canadian  Pondweed  (Elodea  cana- 
densis  Michx.  =  Anacharis  Alsinastrum 
Bab.)  is  an  introduced  aquatic  weed, 
native  of  North  America.  The  plant 
(Fig.  95)  is  a  fresh  green  colour,  is 
semi-transparent,  and  has  completely 
submerged,  slender  branched  stems, 
which  bear  whorls  of  three  or  four 
lanceolate-serrated  leaves  at  short  inter- 
vals. The  stems  are  brittle,  and  often 
3  or  4  feet  long  ;  when  broken  in  pieces 
each  piece  is  capable  of  developing  roots 
at  the  joints,  so  enabling  it  to  attach 
itself  to  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pond  or  stream,  where  it  grows  very 
rapidly  into  a  new  branching  plant.  In 
its  native  country  Water-thyme  is  dioe- 
cious, and  produces  small,  one-seeded 
capsules.  In  Britain  only  male  plants 
have  been  found,  and  these  only  in  one 
or  two  localities.  It  spreads  vegeta- 
tively,  at  an  exceedingly  rapid  rate,  by 
means  of  broken  pieces  of  stem  when 
introduced  into  ponds  and  slow-moving 
streams. 

It  appears  to  have   been  introduced 
into  the   North  of   Ireland  about  1836, 

'pondM         and  into  EnSlanc*  about  five  years  later. 
dea    canadensis  From   that   time  to  the   present  it  has 

Michx.),  x$. 

made    its    way    into    all    parts    of    the 
country,  and  has  become  a  constant  source  of  trouble 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      333 

by  blocking  up  canals  and  streams.  River  and  canal 
navigation  is  impeded  by  its  presence,  and  it  seriously 
interferes  with  angling  in  lakes  and  slow-moving  rivers. 

In  certain  seasons  it  becomes  rampant,  spreading  its 
long  tangled  stems  through  the  water  in  all  directions. 
For  a  period  of  three  or  four  years  afterwards  it 
frequently  dies  down,  probably  owing  to  exhaustion  of 
the  nutritive  materials  of  the  mud  and  water,  and  then 
is  only  seen  as  a  green  carpet  on  the  bed  of  the  lake 
or  stream.  (See  also  p.  327.) 

It  is  a  nutritious  green  food  for  horses  and  cattle 
when  fresh. 

IRIDACE^E 

Flag  or  Yellow  Iris  (Iris  Pseud-acorns  L.). — This  well- 
known,  handsome  plant,  with  its  large  yellow  flowers, 
is  common  in  wet  ditches  and  by  the  margins  of 
streams  and  lakes  where  the  water  is  not  more  than 
12  to  1 8  inches  deep.  It  has  stout,  creeping  root- 
stocks  on  the  mud  below,  and  from  them  are  sent  up 
round  stems  and  sword-shaped  leaves.  The  flowers 
appear  usually  from  June  to  August.  The  plant  is 
propagated  by  means  of  its  rootstock  and  its  flat  seeds, 
which  are  produced  in  numbers  in  large  three-celled 
capsules. 

TYPHACE.E 

Bur-reed  (Sparganium  ramosum  Huds.)  is  a  fre- 
quent inhabitant  of  ditches  and  the  banks  of  ponds 
and  rivers.  The  erect  stems  rise  to  a  height  of  about 
2  feet,  and  bear  long,  narrow  leaves  (2  to  3  feet  long 
and  about  J  to  i  inch  broad)  three-angled  at  their 
base.  The  flowering  stem  is  branched,  and  the  uni- 
sexual flowers  are  arranged  in  round  heads,  or  "  burs," 
about  an  inch  in  diameter. 


334 


COMMON    WEEDS 


S.  simplex  is  another  fairly  common  species  resem- 
bling the  above,  but  with  simple  instead  of  branched 
flowering  stems,  and  often  having  narrow  floating 
leaves. 

Club-rush  :  "Bulrush,"  Reed-mace  (Typha  latifolia  L.), 
is  a  common  water  plant,  with  dark,  rich  brown  spikes, 
in  shape  somewhat  like  a  lamp  brush.  The  plant,  with 
its  tall  stems,  is  common  in  ponds  and  ditches,  and  on 
the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers:  it  needs  no  further 
description. 

LEMNACE^: 

Duckweed  (Lemna  minor  L.). — This  is  a  familiar 
palish  green  minute  plant  which  is  often  seen  com- 
pletely covering 
the  surface  of 
small  ponds.  It 
is  abundant  in 
ditches  and  back- 
waters of  many 
rivers  and  streams, 
and  is  trouble- 
some in  watercress 
beds.  Each  plant 
floats  on  the  water, 
and  consists  of  one 

or  two  flattened  scale-like  "  fronds  "  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
or  so  in  diameter  (Fig.  96).  From  the  under  part  a 
delicate  root  about  J  to  i  inch  long  dips  into  the 
water.  Very  minute  unisexual  flowers  arise  on  the 
"  fronds,"  and  these  produce  seeds  which  propagate 
the  plant.  Multiplication,  however,  goes  on  most 
rapidly  by  vegetative  budding  off  of  young  fronds, 
which  become  disconnected  from  the  parent  and  then 
carry  on  an  independent  life,  the  process  being  repeated. 


FIG.  96. — Lesser  Duckweed  (Lemna  minor  L.), 
nat  size. 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      335 

Another  larger  species 
(L.  trisulca  L.),  with  fronds 
\  to  |  of  an  inch  across, 
the  young  ones  of  which 
grow  out  at  right  angles 
to  the  older  ones,  is  com- 
mon also  in  many  places 
on  stagnant  water. 

A  less  frequent  species 
is  L.  polyrhiza  L.,  with 
several  roots  to  each 
plant,  instead  of  one. 


ALISMACE^: 

Water  Plantain  (Alis- 
ma  Plantago  L.)  is  a  com- 
mon inhabitant  of  ditches 
and  the  edges  of  streams. 
The  stems  are  fleshy,  with 
a  swollen  base  from  which 
spring  up  long-stalked 
erect  leaves  (Fig.  97). 
The  submerged  floating 
leaves  are  linear,  those 
which  come  above  the 
water  having  long  lan- 
ceolate blades  (6  to  8 
inches  long)  with  a  cor- 
date base.  The  flowers, 
which  are  seen  from  June 
to  August,  are  pale  pink, 
with  six  perianth  seg- 
ments, and  are  arranged 
in  an  erect  panicle. 


FIG.  97.— Water  Plantain  (Alisma  Plantago  L.), 
x  §,  with  flower  enlarged. 


336  COMMON    WEEDS 

Arrow-head  (Sagittaria  sagiltifolia  L.)  is  another 
species  of  this  order  less  common  than  Water  Plantain, 
but  met  with  in  similar  positions  in  water.  It  has 
peculiar  creeping  stoloniferous  stems,  the  branches  of 
which  end  in  small  tubers  about  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  sub-aerial  leaves  are  characteristically 
arrow-shaped,  hence  the  popular  name  of  the  plant.  The 
leaves  in  the  water  consist  of  narrow  petioles  without 
leaf-blades. 

The  unisexual  flowers  have  white  petals,  and  are 
arranged  in  whorls  ;  the  upper  are  male,  and  the 
lower  female. 

NAIADACE^: 

Pondweed. — The  term  "pondweed"  is  applied  in  a 
restricted  sense  to  representatives  of  the  genus  Potamo- 
geton.  A  large  number  of  species  are  known,  some  of 
them  with  floating  leaves,  others  with  submerged 
leaves  only.  The  majority  are  inhabitants  of  water 
from  12  to  24  feet  deep. 

The  flowers  are  arranged  in  terminal  or  axillary 
spikes ;  they  are  small,  with  four  greenish  perianth 
segments,  four  stamens,  and  an  ovary  of  four  carpels, 
which  ripen  into  small  drupes,  each  containing  a  single 
seed. 

The  species  perhaps  most  frequently  met  with 
are : — 

Potamogeton  natans  L.  (Fig.  98),  with  floating,  leathery, 
elliptic  or  ovate  leaf-blades  and  long  alternate  petioles, 
some  of  which  remain  under  water  and  develop  no 
blade. 

P,  polygonifolius  Pourr.  somewhat  resembles  P.  natans, 
but  has  narrower  floating  leaf-blades,  and  lanceolate 
submerged  blades  also. 

P.    heterophyllus    Schreb.    has    flowering    stems    with 


FIG.  98.— Left:  Floating  Pondweed  (Potamogeton  natans  L.).     Right:  Curly 
Pondweed  (P.  crispus  L.).     Both  x  |. 

Y 


338  COMMON    WEEDS 

many  barren  branches,  elliptical  floating  leaves  and 
narrow  lanceolate  submerged  leaves.  The  stem  of  the 
flower  spike  is  thicker  in  the  upper  part  than  in  the 
lower.  The  following  species  have  submerged  leaves 
only  : — 

P.  lucens  L.  is  common  in  deeper  ponds,  lakes,  and 
canals.  The  leaves  are  4  to  10  inches  long,  ovate  or 
lanceolate,  and  translucent. 

P.  perfoliatus  L.  is  a  smaller  species,  with  round  stems 
and  translucent  ovate  leaves  i  to  3  inches  long,  which 
clasp  round  the  stems. 

P.  crispus  L.  (Fig.  98)  has  long  flattened  stems,  on 
which  are  arranged,  usually  in  two  opposite  rows, 
somewhat  narrow  oblong  leaves  i  to  3  inches  long,  the 
margins  of  which  are  crisped  or  wavy. 

P.  densus  L.  has  opposite  elliptic-lanceolate  short 
leaves,  J  to  i  inch  long,  arranged  very  closely  together 
in  two  rows  on  the  brittle  stems.  It  is  sometimes  a 
nuisance  to  growers  of  watercress. 

P.  pusillus  L.  is  a  smaller  submerged  species,  with 
thin  stems,  and  very  narrow  acute  leaves. 

CYPERACE^: 

This  order  includes  a  large  number  of  species  of 
plants,  many  of  which  are  common  inhabitants  of  river- 
banks,  lakes,  ditches,  and  marshy  places,  and  usually 
spoken  of  as  Rushes  and  Sedges.  One  or  two  only  need 
be  mentioned  here. 

Bulrush,  Club-rush  (Scirpus  lacustris  L.)  is  often  met 
with  in  shallow  water  on  the  edges  of  ponds  and  slow- 
moving  streams.  It  has  an  extensive  creeping  root- 
stock,  tall  green  stems,  usually  leafless,  4  to  6  feet  high, 
and  \  to  |  of  an  inch  thick,  with  a  spongy  interior. 
Occasionally  in  running  water  flat  floating  leaves  are 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      339 

present.  The  inflorescences  are  terminal,  reddish- 
brown  clusters  or  cymes. 

S.  TaberncemontaniGmzl.  is  a  sub-species  of  the  above, 
with  glaucous  stems. 

Sedges. — -Many  of  these  plants  are  found  in  marshes 
and  ditches  and  on  the  margins  of  ponds  and  rivers. 
They  much  resemble  grasses  in  general  appearance,  but 
the  stems  are  usually  triangular  in  section,  and  the 
leaf-sheaths  are  entire,  not  split,  as  in  most  grasses. 
The  flowers  are  unisexual  and  in  spikes ;  the  male 
flowers  have  three  stamens  and  no  perianth  ;  the  female 
flowers  have  a  peculiar  bottle-shaped  perianth,  in  which 
is  the  ovary,  with  its  two  or  three  projecting  stigmas. 
The  fruit  is  a  small,  three-angled  nut. 

Common  species  which  may  be  described  as  weeds 
of  the  margins  of  ponds,  river-banks,  and  ditches  are 
Carex  ampullacea  Good.,  C.  vesicaria  L.,  C.  paludosa 
Good.,  and  C.  riparia  Curt.  These  grow  from  i  to  3 
feet  high,  with  broad,  grass-like  leaves,  and  have  creep- 
ing or  tufted  rootstocks. 

GRAMINE.E 

The  Reed  (Phragmites  communis  Trin.)  is  a  grass 
which  occurs  in  shallow  water  at  the  edges  of  lakes  and 
streams  and  in  ditches  throughout  the  country.  It  is 
useful  for  bedding  of  animals  and  for  thatching.  The 
rootstock  is  much  branched,  often  forming  a  dense, 
mat-like  growth  under  water,  some  of  the  rhizomes 
extending  20  or  30  feet.  The  erect  stems  are  round, 
6  to  10  feet  high,  with  broad  flat  leaves  usually  about 
an  inch  wide,  and  of  ashy-green  colour  beneath.  The 
panicle  is  diffuse,  6  to  12  inches  long,  with  purple, 
shining,  three-  to  six-flowered  spikelets. 


340 


COMMON    WEEDS 


EQUISETACE^: 


Horse-tails.— All  the  representatives  of  this  order  are 
adapted  for  life  in  wet  places.     One  species,  Equisetum 

limosum 
monly 
about   2 


is    com- 


FIG. 


L, 

met  with  in 
or  3  feet  of 
water  along  the  edges 
of  lakes  and  in  ditches. 
The  smooth  stems  grow 
from  i  to  3  feet  high, 
sometimes  with  short, 
simple  branches  in 
whorls.  The  terminal 
spore-bearing  spike  or 
cone  is  short  and  blunt. 

CHARACE^E 

Various  species  of 
Stoneworts  (Cham  and 
Nitelld)  are  lowly  bo- 
tanical forms  with  a 
complicated  floral 
structure.  They  may 
have  simple  or 
branched  stems  up  to 
i  foot  long,  according 
to  species.  Cylindrical 
branches  in  whorls  are 
produced  at  the  nodes 
(Fig.  99).  The  Stoneworts  grow  in  brackish  or  fresh 
water,  and  are  attached  to  the  mud  at  the  bottom, 
frequently  covering  large  areas  with  vegetation.  They 
are  not  usually  troublesome. 


j. — Stonewort  (Chara  vulgaris  L.),  nat.  size, 
with  reproductive  organs  magnified. 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      341 

DESTRUCTION  OF  WATER  WEEDS 

i.  The  opportunities  for  the  destruction  of  water 
weeds,  and  the  methods  which  can  be  employed  for 
diminishing  them,  are  few  compared  with  those  available 
in  the  case  of  weeds  of  gardens  and  fields.  When 
abundant  in  ditches  they  should  be  cut  with  the  scythe 
or  hook  or  pulled  up  by  hand,  and  their  removal  should 
be  arranged  and  repeated  so  that  at  all  times  of  the 
year  the  water  has  a  free  passage,  and  is  not  forced 
back  or  kept  in  a  stagnant  state  to  the  detriment  of 
adjoining  cultivated  land  or  pasture. 

Along  the  margins  of  ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers  also 
they  are  best  cut  down  with  the  scythe  when  the  water 
is  low,  or  from  a  boat  when  wading  is  not  feasible. 

In  dealing  with  the  question  of  cutting  weeds  in 
rivers  and  lakes  kept  for  fishing,  or  for  the  attraction 
of  water-fowl,  it  must  be  remembered  that  if  weeds  are 
cleared  away  completely  the  natural  cover,  and  to  some 
extent  the  spawning  beds  of  fish,  are  destroyed  or 
damaged.  Water  plants  provide  food  and  shelter  for 
thousands  of  insects  and  their  larvae  upon  which  fish 
and  water-fowl  largely  feed,  and  their  reduction  involves 
much  detriment  to  the  sporting  value  of  the  water. 
Cutting  should  therefore  be  carried  out  with  judgment, 
patches  being  left  untouched  for  a  time,  and  cut  later 
when  areas  previously  mown  have  somewhat  re- 
covered. 

The  operation  of  cutting  weeds  in  ponds  and  streams 
is  managed  in  various  ways.  A  hand-power  machine 
for  use  with  a  boat  or  punt  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  100, 
the  weed-cutter  consisting  of  V-shaped  scolloped  saws 
dragged  along  the  bottom  at  the  end  of  an  oscillating 
and  hinged  arm.  The  same  kind  of  cutter  may  be 
used  with  motive  power  in  a  punt  or  boat,  which  may 


342 


COMMON    WEEDS 


be  of  a  considerable  size  and  cost  a  large  sum  of  money. 
A  motor  punt  weed-cutter  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  101. 


FIG.  ioo. — Hand-power  Machine  for  fixing  to  Boats  or  Punts,  which  may  be 
rowed  by  oars  or  towed  from  the  bank  by  ropes.  The  cutting  is  performed 
by  the  V-shaped  scolloped  saws  suspended  from  an  oscillating  hinged  arm. 
A  similar  V-shaped  weed-cutter  on  a  long  handle  is  useful  for  hand  work 
from  the  bank,  boat  or  punt.  (Saunderson,  Bedford.) 


Scythe  blades  may  be  attached  to  ropes  which  can 
be  dragged  through  the  weeds  from  a  boat,  or  from 


FIG.  ioi.— Motor  Punt  Weed-cutter.     (Saunderson,  Bedford.) 


opposite  banks  of  the    river  or  stream  when  not  too 
wide. 

An  excellent  weed-cutting  saw  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 


WEEDS    OF    PONDS,    RIVERS,    DITCHES      343 

1 02.     This  is  a  long  flexible  blade  with  saw-like  teeth, 
which  quickly  severs  the  stems  of  water  weeds. 


FIG.  102. — Ziemsen's  Weed-cutting  Saw  :  A,  the  saw-like  teeth  ;  B,  torpedo- 
shaped  sinkers  ;  C,  clamp  ;  D,  wire  ;  E,  rope  ;  F,  handle. 

In  shallow  and  wide  streams  weeds  are  often  cut  by 
men  who  wade  in  the  water  and  use  hand  scythes. 

As  far  as  possible  the  cut  weeds  should  be  removed 
from  the  river,  and  not  sent  down  stream  to  be  a 
trouble  and  annoyance  to  neighbours  below. 

2.  In  addition  to  cutting  weeds  by  means  of  different 
tools,   some   of  them   may  be  kept  down  to  a   certain 
extent  by  swans.     These  birds  nip  off  the  young  tops 
among  water  plants,  and  check  their  rampant  growth, 
as  in  the  case  of  Elodea  canadensis  (p.  332). 

3.  For  the   destruction   of  floating    slimy    "scum," 
particularly  in  fresh-water  lakes,  copper  sulphate  has 
been  used  with  success.     This  substance  in  exceedingly 
minute  amounts  kills  Desmids  and  many  microscopic 
green  and  brown  slimy  algae  composing  the   "  scum." 
(One  part  in  a  million  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  growth, 
and  does  not  harm  fish    nor   prevent  the  water  from 
being  used  for  drinking  purposes.) 

One  and  a  half  ounces  of  copper  sulphate  dissolved 
in  two  gallons  of  water  and  applied  as  a  spray  to  the 
"  slime "  on  the  surface  of  water  has  been  found  to 
destroy  it.  A  second  spraying  a  week  later  makes 
success  more  certain. 


344  COMMON    WEEDS 

Ponds  and  lakes  have  been  cleared  of  slimy  algae  also 
by  placing  copper  sulphate  in  a  sack  and  towing  it  up 
and  down  in  the  water  from  the  end  of  a  boat.  About 
i  Ib.  of  the  chemical  per  125,000  gallons  of  water  in 
the  pond  has  been  found  suitable  for  the  work.  The 
amount  of  water  in  the  pond  can  be  calculated  with 
sufficient  accuracy  by  multiplying  the  average  length, 
breadth,  and  depth  in  feet  together,  and  multiplying 
this  product  by  6\  (the  approximate  number  of  gallons 
in  a  cubic  foot). 

4.  The  weeds  of  watercress  beds  must  be  dug  out 
or  constantly  pulled  up  by  hand. 


"  The  seeds  of  most  sorts  of  weeds  are  so  hardy,  as  to  lie  sound  and  uncor- 
rupt  for  many  years,  or  perhaps  ages,  in  the  earth  ;  and  are  not  killed  until 
they  begin  to  grow  or  sprout,  which  very  few  of  them  do  unless  the  land  be 
ploughed,  and  then  enough  of  them  will  ripen  amongst  the  sown  crop  to 
propagate  and  continue  their  species,  by  shedding  their  offspring  in  the 
ground  (for  it  is  observed  they  are  generally  ripe  before  the  corn),  and  the 
seeds  of  these  do  the  same  in  the  next  sown  crop  ;  and  thus  perpetuate  their 
savage,  wicked  brood,  from  generation  to  generation." 

— J  ET  H  R  o  T  u  LL  ,  The  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry,  1731. 


CHAPTER    X 

WEEDS    IN    LAWNS,   DRIVES,   ETC. 

A  NUMBER  of  weeds  occur  in  a  variety  of  positions  not 
yet  considered,  and  it  will  be  convenient  to  deal  with 
these  together  in  a  single  chapter,  although  they  differ 
among  themselves  both  in  character  and  in  the  harm 
they  do.  Certain  weeds  which  occur  on  lawns,  paths, 
and  drives  are  frequently  exceedingly  troublesome, 
while  Moss  and  Lichens  growing  on  trees  and  stone- 
work are  equally  noxious,  and  may  well  be  discussed 
here.  (Moss  in  pastures  has  been  dealt  with  in  Chap. 
V.,  at  p.  229.) 

WEEDS  IN  LAWNS 

Lawns  are  unfortunately  often  much  disfigured  by 
Plantains,  Daisies,  Dandelions,  and  occasionally  even 
with  fungus  ft  fairy  rings."  Lawns,  bowling-greens, 
and  cricket  pitches,  which  are  weed  infested,  may  be 
much  improved  by  dressing  them  in  spring  with  some 
rich,  fine  soil,  in  which  a  small  amount  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia  has  been  mixed  in  quantity  sufficient  to  give 
about  i  Ib.  to  the  square  rod.  This  plan  tends  to  the 
growth  of  the  finer  grasses,  and  helps  to  suppress  weeds 
and  clovers. 

Lawn  Sands. — Weedy  lawns  may  be  improved  by 
the  application  of  what  are  termed  "  lawn  sands." 
These  consist  chiefly  of  dry  fine  sand  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  and  have  a  magical  effect  in  clearing 
lawns  of  Plantains  and  Daisies.  An  application  of 

345 


346  COMMON    WEEDS 

sulphate  of  ammonia  (|-i  oz.  per  square  yard)  mixed 
with  fine  dry  soil  acts  in  a  similar  manner,  and  may 
with  advantage  be  evenly  applied  once  a  month  from 
April  to  July. 

Removing  Weeds  by  Hand. — A  common  plan  of 
ridding  lawns  of  Plantains,  Daisies,  &c.,  is  to  go  over 
the  whole  plot  carefully  and  remove  them  bodily  by 
means  of  a  knife  or  spud.  They  should  not  be  merely 
cut  off  below  the  surface,  as  many  weeds  so  treated 
will  only  sprout  afresh.  Patent  weed  extractors  may 
be  obtained  to  remove  lawn  weeds  quickly  and  well. 

Poisoning"  of  Lawn  Weeds. — Other  methods  for 
killing  weeds  in  lawns  consist  in  the  use  of  salt  and 
acids.  A  small  thimbleful  of  salt  or  a  pinch  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia  placed  on  the  crown  of  a  Daisy,  Plantain, 
or  other  broad-leaved  weed  in  the  lawn  will  destroy  it  ; 
stout,  thick-rooted  weeds  may  with  advantage  be 
stabbed  with  a  knife  or  skewer  before  applying  the 
poison.  Sulphuric  acid,  strong  carbolic  acid,  and 
liquid  weed  killers  may  also  be  employed  for  the  same 
purpose  ;  the  method  of  using  these  is  to  dip  a  wooden 
skewer  into  one  or  other  of  the  liquids  and  plunge  it 
into  the  centre  of  the  plant,  so  that  a  drop  of  the 
liquid  is  left  behind.  Such  a  plan  will  quickly  kill 
all  the  larger  weeds.  Patent  stabbers  for  the  use  of 
weed-killers  are  also  on  the  market. 

In  removing  weeds  by  hand,  or  in  destroying  them 
as  described  above,  bare  patches  may  be  left  in  the 
grass  where  large  Plantains  or  Dandelions  have  previously 
occupied  the  soil.  When  this  is  the  case  the  patches 
should  be  raked  over  in  February,  dressed  with  fine 
soil,  and  sown  with  grass  seeds.  Odd  places  may  easily 
be  treated  in  this  way,  or  may  be  filled  up  with  trans- 
planted Poa  annua  (one  of  the  best  of  lawn  grasses),  or, 
in  cases  where  a  good  surface  is  wanted  immediately, 


WEEDS    IN    LAWNS,    DRIVES,    ETC.      347 

the  lawn  may  be  neatly  patched  with  good  turves. 
However,  lawns  which  are  overrun  with  large  weeds 
are  best  broken  up  and  re-made. 

Removal  of  Moss. — Where  Moss  occurs  on  lawns 
it  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  either  that  draining  is 
necessary  or  that  the  soil  is  poor.  The  measures 
necessary  to  renovate  a  mossy  lawn  are:  (i)  A  sound 
raking  or  harrowing,  to  drag  out  the  Moss  and  open  up 
the  surface  as  much  as  possible  ;  (2)  the  application 
of  a  good  compost  of  one  part  of  lime  to  four  of  soil, 
with  the  addition  of  a  little  Peruvian  guano  ;  (3) 
frequent  rolling.  In  bad  cases  grass  seeds  should 
be  sown  on  the  dressing  of  compost  ;  the  young  grass 
often  rapidly  overcomes  the  Moss  present  ;  (4)  water- 
ing with  a  i  per  cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron 
applied  through  a  fine  rose,  followed  by  top-dressing 
as  in  (2),  and  if  necessary  the  sowing  of  seeds.  The 
results  of  experiments  conducted  by  Der  Kgl.  Gartner- 
lehranstalt  at  Dahlem,  and  reported  in  Der  Handelsgdrtner 
(March  13),  indicate  that  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  iron  is  effective  in  ridding  lawns  of  moss. 
After  the  application  of  the  green  vitriol  solution,  the 
grass  should  be  sprinkled  several  times  with  a  weak 
(3  per  cent)  solution  of  nitrate  of  soda.1  Should  such 
remedial  measures  not  prove  satisfactory,  draining  must 
be  considered. 

Fairy  Rings  in  Lawns,  &c. — The  small  fungi  which 
often  appear  in  ring-like  patches  on  grass  land  may 
appear  in  lawns  and  prove  very  troublesome.  These 
"  fairy  rings,"  as  they  are  termed,  expand  gradually 
from  the  central  point  where  they  started,  growing  year 
by  year  in  diameter.  Messrs.  Sutton  &  Sons  state 2 
that  t(  One  remedy  is  a  dressing  of  2  tons  of  slaked 
stone  lime  per  acre.  Another  is  basic  slag,  at  the  rate 

1   Card.  Chron.,  June  19,  1909.  2  Lawns,  p.  36. 


348  COMMON    WEEDS 

of  i  ton  per  acre.  This  is  rather  slower  in  its  action 
than  lime,  and  in  many  cases  it  will  be  considered 
objectionable,  because  it  encourages  the  growth  of 
clovers.  The  dressing  may  be  necessary  for  two 
consecutive  years.  Spring  is  the  best  time,  especially 
when  showery  weather  prevails." 

The  following  note  is  of  considerable  interest : — 

"  A  Doncaster  correspondent  inquires  how  '  Fairy 
Rings '  may  be  destroyed  on  grass  land.  It  may  be 
remarked  that  in  Dr.  Gilbert's  experience  Fairy  Rings 
grow  chiefly  on  impoverished  soil.  Infested  grass  land 
therefore,  which  is  at  all  poor  in  character,  should  be 
liberally  manured,  and  when  the  grasses  have  become 
more  vigorous  the  Fairy  Rings  will  probably  disappear. 
In  the  case  of  lawns  and  special  grass  plots  i  ton  of 
slaked  lime  might  be  applied  in  winter,  3  to  4  cwt.  of 
superphosphate,  3  cwt.  kainit,  and  J  cwt.  nitrate  of 
soda  in  early  spring,  and  i  to  2  cwt.  superphosphate 
and  i  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda  in  late  spring — all  per  acre. 
For  pastures,  4  cwt.  superphosphate  and  2  cwt.  kainit 
may  be  applied  in  early  spring,  and  J  cwt.  nitrate  of 
soda  early  in  April."  1 

In  the  case  of  lawns  on  soils  containing  lime  or 
of  a  damp  character,  sulphate  of  ammonia  may  be 
substituted  for  the  nitrate  of  soda  with  advantage. 

Mr.  G.  H.  Robinson  (Assistant  Vegetable  Pathologist, 
Victoria)  found  that  the  fairy  ring  puff-ball  Lycoperdon 
polymorphum  Vitt.  could  be  eradicated  by  watering  with 
a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  In  his  experiments 2 
an  infested  bowling-green  was  divided  into  plots  of 
60  square  yards,  8  Ib.  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  30 
gallons  of  water  being  put  on  that  area  with  zinc 
watering-cans.  The  green  was  well  watered  over 

1  Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  August  1907,  p.  296. 

2  Agricultural  Gazette,  New  South  Wales,  August  1907. 


WEEDS    IN    LAWNS,    DRIVES,    ETC.      349 

night,  and  a  further  light  watering  followed  the 
application  of  the  sulphate  solution.  "  Three  additional 
treatments  were  given,  four  in  all,  at  intervals  of  a 
week,  and  only  two  puff-balls  were  gathered  on  the 
whole  green  after  the  second  dose,  though  before  the 
first  it  would  have  been  no  hard  task  to  collect  a 
barrowful.  Since  the  third  treatment  no  puff-balls 
have  been  seen  on  the  green,  and  two  whole  seasons 
have  passed  with  no  trace  whatever  of  anything  in  the 
shape  of  a  fairy  ring." 

In  view  of  the  large  amount  of  sulphate  of  iron  used 
(over  i  ton  per  acre)  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  give  a 
heavy  dressing  of  lime  to  reduce  any  remaining  in  the 
ground  to  a  harmless  state,  and  i  ton  per  acre  of 
freshly  slaked  quicklime  was  evenly  applied  a  week 
after  the  last  dose  of  sulphate  solution. 

WEEDS  ON  GRAVEL  PATHS  AND  DRIVES 

Many  weeds  occur  on  gravel  paths  and  drives,  and 
are  frequently  extremely  troublesome,  Plantains,  Dande- 
lions, Groundsel,  Shepherd's  Purse,  Poa  annua,  and  other 
plants  growing  freely  in  such  situations  if  allowed  to  do 
so.  The  use  of  the  hoe  and  the  knife  is  very  desirable 
in  certain  cases,  but  the  eradication  of  Dandelions,  Plan- 
.tains,  and  Docks  is  very  difficult  by  such  means.  There 
remain,  however,  other  means  of  treating  paths  and 
drives,  namely,  by  the  application  of  weed-killers,  espe- 
cially after  the  weeds  have  been  hoed  out  or  cut  off. 

Salt  is  an  effective  weed-killer  if  applied  in  quantity 
sufficient  to  whiten  the  surface,  especially  when  used 
during  hot  weather. 

Washing  soda  may  also  be  applied  as  a  solution, 
5  Ib.  in  10  gallons  of  water  being  about  the  right 
strength. 


350  COMMON    WEEDS 

Carbolic  acid  is  another  weed  destroyer  which  can  be 
used  with  satisfactory  results.  "  Mr.  W.  Sowerby,  of 
the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  reports  that 
for  killing  vegetation  and  preventing  its  growth  on 
gravel  walks  he  found  that  carbolic  acid  in  very  dilute 
solutions  (one  part  of  No.  5  quality  in  one  hundred 
parts  water)  was  the  best,  retaining  its  effect  longer 
than  any  other." 

Copper  sulphate  (bluestone),  used  as  a  5  to  10  per 
cent  solution,  will  quickly  kill  weeds  on  drives,  paths, 
and  courtyards. 

Sulphate  of  iron  is  also  an  effective  weed  killer,  but 
requires  to  be  employed  in  much  stronger  solutions 
than  copper  sulphate.  Solutions  of  15  to  25  per  cent 
may  be  used. 

Sulphuric  acid  may  also  be  used  for  combating  weeds 
on  paths,  the  most  suitable  proportions  being  4  parts 
of  crude  sulphuric  acid  to  100  of  water.  Mixing 
should  be  done  in  a  wooden  pail,  and  the  solution 
should  be  passed  as  quickly  as  possible  through  a  rose 
watering-can,  which  should  be  well  rinsed  out  im- 
mediately after  use.  In  applying  such  corroding  solu- 
tions it  is  well  to  cover  the  ground  while  walking 
backwards. 

Hydrochloric  acid  in  the  form  of  a  2  to  4  per  cent 
solution  may  replace  sulphuric  acid. 

Patent  weed-killers  are  sold  by  many  firms,  and,  as 
a  rule,  are  very  effective  when  used  as  directed  by 
the  makers. 

Yellow  arsenical  sheep-dip,  made  up  with  water  exactly 
as  for  sheep-dipping,  has  been  recommended  as  a 
weed-killer  for  paths.2 

Boiling  water  freely  applied  through  a  rose  watering- 

1  Horticultural  Directory,  p.  45. 

2  W,  M.  T.  in  Farmer  and  Stock  Breeder,  August  5,  1907. 


WEEDS    IN    LAWNS,    DRIVES,    ETC.      351 

pot  on  a  sunny  day  is  also  stated  to  do  much  towards 
clearing  walks  and  pavements  of  weeds.1 

WEEDS  AND  Moss  ON  STONEWORK,  &c. 

Weeds  are  frequently  found  growing  in  the  inter- 
stices between  stonework  and  on  brickwork  walls, 
while  Moss  and  Lichens  may  similarly  disfigure  stone 
parapets,  tombstones,  &c.  For  the  larger  weeds,  salt, 
soda,  and  the  other  materials  just  mentioned  may  be 
used  as  for  walks  and  drives,  but  acids  should  never  be 
used  on  marble.  Moss  and  Lichen  may  be  removed 
from  tombstones,  stone  statuary,  and  so  forth  by  spirits 
of  salts  (hydrochloric  acid),  i  pint  of  the  acid  to  i 
pint  of  water.  The  stone  should  be  painted  over  with 
the  liquid,  left  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  scrubbed 
over  with  clear  water.2 

Moss  AND  LICHEN  ON  FRUIT  TREES 

Moss  and  Lichen  on  fruit  trees  are  troublesome  and 
obnoxious,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  cover  up  the 
bark.  Winter  washing  is  the  most  useful  means  of 
dealing  with  fi  weeds "  of  this  class.  Lime-wash  may 
be  applied  in  fine  weather  from  January  to  March,  but 
this  is  not  so  useful  as  a  caustic  soda  wash.  The  latter 
(as  used  at  the  Woburn  Experimental  Fruit  Farm) 
is  prepared  by  mixing  6  Ib.  of  caustic  soda,  ij  Ib.  of 
soft  soap,  2  gallons  of  paraffin,  and  28  gallons  of  water 
in  the  following  manner  : — After  dissolving  the  soft  soap 
in  i  gallon  of  boiling  water  the  paraffin  should  be 
added  and  the  mixture  thoroughly  churned  until  a 
creamy  emulsion  is  obtained.  The  caustic  soda  should 
then  be  dissolved  in  the  remaining  27  gallons  of  water 

1  Journal  of  Horticultiire,  October  4,  1906. 

2  Jbid,,  December  12,  1907. 


352  COMMON    WEEDS 

and  poured  into  the  soft  soap  and  paraffin  emulsion. 
After  a  thorough  churning  the  mixture  should  be 
applied  to  the  trees  at  once  by  means  of  a  spraying 
machine.  Such  a  mixture  as  this  effectively  removes 
the  Moss  and  Lichen  from  the  bark  of  trees.  It  should 
be  applied  in  fine  weather  between  the  middle  of  Feb- 
ruary and  the  end  of  March,  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant— before  the  buds  burst.  This  caustic  soda  wash 
not  only  removes  Moss  and  Lichen,  but  aids  largely  in 
the  suppression  of  insects  and  other  enemies  of  fruit 
trees. 

An  improvement  of  the  formula  given  above  has 
been  recommended  by  Mr.  S.  U.  Pickering,  F.R.S. 
(Director  of  the  Woburn  Experimental  Fruit  Farm), 
and  the  new  wash  suggested  should  consist  of :  Sulphate 
of  iron,  J  lb.;  caustic  soda,  2  lb.;  lime,  i  lb.;  paraffin 
(solar  distillate),  5  pints;  and  water  to  make  up  to  10 
gallons.  (See  Eighth  Report,  Woburn  Experimental 
Fruit  Farm,  1908,  p.  27.) 

Care  is  needed  in  the  application  of  washes  contain- 
ing caustic  soda  and  other  alkalis,  as  these  substances 
have  a  deleterious  or  "burning"  effect  on  the  skin  and 
also  damage  clothes.  The  hands  should  be  protected 
with  gloves  (preferably  made  of  rubber),  and  spraying 
should  take  place  on  a  calm  day  when  the  "  spray " 
will  not  blow  on  to  the  face  and  into  the  eyes  of  the 
operator.  The  eyes  may  be  protected  with  goggles. 

Ivy  (Hedera  Helix  L.),  which  forms  such  an  excel- 
lent and  beautiful  covering  for  unsightly  walls,  buildings, 
and  houses,  frequently  occurs  where  it  is  riot  wanted,  and 
becomes  a  weed  which  it  is  necessary  to  eradicate.  This 
must  be  done  by  cutting  down  and  removing  as  much  of 
the  Ivy  as  possible,  grubbing  out  the  roots,  and  thereafter 
regularly  removing  any  new  growths  that  may  appear. 


CHAPTER   XI 

PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED   TESTING 

OWING  to  the  fact  that  weed  seeds  are  regularly  intro- 
duced to  farms  through  the  medium  of  agricultural 
seeds,  the  scientific  examination  or  analysis  of  the 
latter  is  intimately  connected  with  the  eradication  of 
weeds.  The  value  of  such  examinations  has  of  late 
years  been  fully  recognised  by  all  civilised  countries, 
most  of  which  now  possess  official  seed-testing  stations. 
The  whole  question  dates  from  about  1869,  when 
much  information  as  to  the  dishonourable  manner  in 
which  seeds  were  treated  and  sold  was  made  public 
and  freely  discussed. 

Seed-testing  Stations. — It  may  serve  a  useful  purpose 
to  quote  here  a  page  from  an  article  by  Professor 
Johnson  i1— 

"  Although  the  credit  of  starting  the  first  Seed- 
testing  Station  must  be  given  to  Nobbe,  measures  had 
been  taken  as  long  ago  as  1816  in  Switzerland  to 
suppress  fraud  in  the  seed  trade.  Thus  an  inspector 
had  the  right  of  entry  into  a  seed  shop  or  warehouse 
for  inspection  of  the  seeds  on  sale,  punishment  follow- 
ing detection  of  fraud.  In  England  in  1869  the 
Adulteration  of  Seeds  Act  was  passed,  making  it  penal 
to  kill  or  dye  seeds.  The  Royal  Horticultural  Society 
of  England  did  much  to  expose  the  corruption  which 
had  crept  into  the  seed  trade.  In  its  second  Report 

i  Science  Progress,  Jan.  1907:  "The  Principles  of  Seed  Testing,"  by  T. 
Johnson,  D.Sc.,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin. 

353  Z 


354  COMMON    WEEDS 

(Farmers  Magazine,  February  1869),  the  Royal  Horti- 
cultural Society  Committee  says  :  <  .  .  .  Everything 
is  thus  thrown  upon  the  honesty  of  the  dealer.  He 
fixes  the  prices,  regulates  the  quality,  and  the  purchaser 
is  kept  in  the  dark,  and  has  no  check  upon  either. 
This  is  a  temptation  beyond  what  the  average  frailty 
of  human  nature  ought  in  fairness  to  be  exposed.  .  .  . 
One  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  association  (of  whole- 
sale seedsmen)  is  ...  the  regulation  of  prices  .  .  . 
and  the  determination  as  to  what  kinds  of  seeds  should 
have  their  average  lowered  and  to  what  extent  it 
should  be  done.'  With  honourable  exceptions,  trade 
catalogues  offered  in  addition  to  '  nett '  or  pure  seed 
'  trio '  seed,  i.e.  seed  killed  for  admixture  purposes ! 
The  Act  of  1869  made  the  admixture  of  killed  seed  an 
offence,  but  did  not  provide  machinery  for  the  detec- 
tion of  the  offence,  as  is  now  the  case  for  artificial 
manures  and  feeding  stuffs  under  the  Fertilisers  and 
Feeding  Stuffs  Act  of  1893  (now  superseded  by  the  Act  of 
1906). 

"  The  revelations  of  fraud  and  ignorance  published 
in  1875  by  Nobbe  in  his  Handbuch  der  Samenkunde  led 
to  vigorous  action,  and  Seed -testing  Stations  were 
started  in  nearly  every  country  in  the  world,  mostly 
under  Government  control.  At  the  present  time  there 
are  some  150." 

Important  Official  Seed-testing  Stations  now  exist  in 
Ireland,  Germany,  Switzerland,  France,  Denmark,  Hun- 
gary, the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  the  United  States  of 
America,  Canada,  New  Zealand,  the  Australian  Colonies, 
and  the  South  African  Colonies.  The  work  done  by 
these  "  Control "  stations,  as  they  are  termed,  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  of  inestimable  value  to  agri- 
culturists, gardeners,  and  others. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        355 

A  Departmental  Committee  was  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  in  1900  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
ditions under  which  agricultural  seeds  were  then  sold, 
and  to  report  whether  any  further  measures  could  with 
advantage  be  taken  to  secure  the  maintenance  of  ade- 
quate standards  of  purity  and  germinating  capacity. 
The  Committee  recommended  the  establishment  of  one 
Central  Seed-testing  Station  under  Government  auspices, 
with  a  practice  and  procedure  to  be  laid  down  and 
revised  from  time  to  time  by  a  small  committee  of 
experts.  It  was  believed  that  the  fees  should  be 
moderate  and  so  fixed  as  to  encourage  seed-merchants 
to  sell  seeds  subject  to  re-testing  by  the  purchaser  if 
desired.  The  recommendation  was  dissented  from  by 
two  members  of  the  Committee  (Sir  W.  T.  Thisleton 
Dyer,  then  Director  of  Kew  Gardens,  and  Mr.  L.  G. 
Sutton),  who  considered  that  there  was  no  strong  case 
in  favour  of  the  establishment  of  such  a  station,  while 
the  results  obtained  from  examination  of  samples  might 
possibly  be  found  to  differ  widely  from  the  bulk,  as  to 
which  no  guarantee  could  be  given.  Both  gentlemen 
urged  strongly  that  the  only  satisfactory  method  of 
testing  seeds  lies  in  growing  crops  therefrom.  No  effect 
has  been  given  to  the  recommendations  of  the  Com- 
mittee, and  at  the  present  time  Great  Britain  does  not 
possess  a  Government  station,  but  seed  examination  is 
undertaken  by  the  larger  agricultural  societies,  farmers' 
clubs,  agricultural  colleges,  and  agricultural  journals. 

A  Government  Station  had  been  established  in  Ire- 
land prior  to  the  appointment  of  the  English  Committee, 
and  some  thousands  of  samples  have  since  been  tested. 
(See  also  p.  411.) 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  remarked  that,  accord- 
ing to  a  Board  of  Agriculture  report,1  the  Board  have 

1  Annual  Report,  Intelligence  Division,  1905,  p.  36. 


356  COMMON    WEEDS 

no  reason  for  supposing  that  the  present  law  is  inade- 
quate to  meet  such  cases  of  fraud  as  occur,  but  they 
deemed  it  advisable  to  put  the  following  notice  in  their 
Journal : — 

"  The  Board  of  Agriculture  consider  it  desirable 
again  to  call  the  attention  of  purchasers  of  farm  and 
garden  seeds  to  the  provision  of  the  Adulteration  of 
Seeds  Acts  of  1869  and  1878.  Under  these  Acts  it 
is  a  criminal  offence  to  sell  or  cause  to  be  sold  any 
killed  or  dyed  seed  or  to  kill  or  dye  or  to  cause  to  be 
killed  or  dyed  any  seeds.  The  term  t  to  kill  seeds ' 
means  to  destroy  by  artificial  means  the  vitality  or 
germinating  powers  of  such  seeds.  The  term  '  to  dye 
seeds '  means  to  apply  to  seeds  any  process  of  colour- 
ing, dyeing,  or  sulphur  smoking.  Proceedings  under 
these  Acts  against  any  person  in  respect  of  selling  or 
causing  to  be  sold  any  killed  or  dyed  seeds  must  be 
commenced  within  twenty-one  days  from  the  time  of 
the  commission  of  the  offence.  Seeds  for  use  on  farms 
and  market  gardens  should  always  be  bought  subject 
to  a  guarantee  of  genuineness  and  germination,  and 
their  germinating  power  should  be  tested  to  see  whether 
the  seeds  come  up  to  the  standard  guaranteed.  The 
presence  of  dye  or  other  colouring  matter  can  mostly 
be  detected  by  rubbing  the  seed  in  soft  white  paper 
or  by  washing  a  small  quantity  in  water." 

The  subject  seemed  of  so  much  importance,  how- 
ever, that  a  further  note  was  inserted  in  the  Board's 
Journal  for  July  1905,  the  following  being  extracted 
therefrom  : — 

"  Seeds  for  use  on  farms  and  market  gardens  should 
always  be  bought  subject  to  a  guarantee  for  purity, 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        357 

genuineness,  and  high  germinating  power.  Purity 
may  be  taken  to  mean  that  the  seeds  composing  the 
sample  consist  of  the  variety  required  without  admixture 
of  other  seeds,  or  of  sand,  dirt,  chaff,  empty  husks,  &c. 
Impurity  is  mainly  caused  by  carelessness  in  separating 
weed  seeds  from  the  bulk,  and  from  want  of  care  in 
cleaning  and  screening,  and  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant considerations  in  purchasing  seeds,  as  impure  see'd 
is  the  cause  not  merely  of  a  diminished  yield,  but  is 
responsible  for  the  spread  of  weeds.  Farmers  not 
infrequently  make  use  of  the  sweepings  of  hay  lofts, 
and  thus  encourage  the  reproduction  of  weeds,  which, 
later  in  the  season,  require  much  labour  to  be  pre- 
vented from  choking  the  cultivated  crop.  .  .  . 

"  In  addition  to  a  guarantee  of  purity,  a  high  per- 
centage of  germination  should  be  demanded,  and  the 
germinating  power  of  the  seeds  may  usefully  be  tested 
to  see  whether  they  come  up  to  the  standard  named." 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Seed  Control  Station  at 
Zurich  for  1908,  no  less  than  twenty-four  British  seeds- 
men have  their  seed  scientifically  examined  at  that  station 
(Appendix  V.).  A  glance  at  the  catalogues  of  many  of 
our  best  seedsmen  will  convince  the  purchaser  that 
the  seed  sold  by  such  business  houses  is  eminently 
satisfactory,  since  it  is  sold  under  guarantee  and  subject 
to  analysis  by  a  recognised  botanist.  One  or  two 
statements  by  firms  may  usefully  be  given  here.  In 
the  terms  of  guarantee  of  one  firm  it  is  stated  that 
their  seeds  offered  in  the  list  "have  been  carefully 
grown,  selected,  cleaned,  and  repeatedly  tested  under 
our  personal  superintendence.  We  are  therefore  able 
to  guarantee  their  analytical  purity  and  high  germina- 
tion, and  purchasers  are  invited  to  submit  them  imme- 
diately to  the  analysis  of  any  public  botanist,  and  to 


358  COMMON    WEEDS 

return  them  to  us  at  once  if  not  approved  by  him. 
But  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  undertake  any  responsi- 
bility, expressed  or  implied,  as  to  description,  purity, 
productiveness,  or  any  other  matter  connected  with 
the  crop  when  the  seed  has  been  sown.  Unless  the 
goods  are  accepted  on  these  terms  they  should  be 
returned  at  once." 

In  the  list  of  another  firm  of  seed  merchants  we 
find  the  following  statement : — "  All  the  seeds  offered 
in  this  catalogue  are  warranted  pure  and  genuine,  and 
the  percentage  of  germination  of  each  kind  of  seed  is 
stated  and  guaranteed. 

"All  seeds  are  offered  and  sold  subject  to  the  analysis 
of  the  Consulting  Botanists  to  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,  and  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland  ;  also  of  Dr.  Stebler,  Director  of 
the  Swiss  Seed  Control  Station,  Zurich. 

"  The  germination  of  every  parcel  of  seed  offered  in 
this  catalogue  has  been  repeatedly  tested  by  the  most 
perfect  methods,  and  duplicate  tests  of  all  important 
lots  of  grasses  and  clovers  have  also  been  made  by 
Dr.  Stebler,  of  Zurich,  whose  official  reports  may  be 
inspected  by  anyone  interested. 

"  It  will  be  understood  that  while  all  the  seeds  offered 
in  this  catalogue  are  absolutely  guaranteed  to  be  genuine, 
of  the  purest  quality,  and  to  possess  the  highest  standard 
of  germinating  power,  yet  no  guarantee  is  given  beyond 
this,  as  the  most  perfect  seeds  may  fail  when  the  condi- 
tions of  season,  climate,  or  culture  are  unfavourable,  and 
these  matters  are  not  under  the  control  of  the  seller." 


CASES  SHOWING  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  SEED-TESTING 

In  order  to  show  conclusively  that  seed-testing  is  qf 
immense  service  to  farmers  and  gardeners,  it  may  be 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        359 

well  to  quote  here  a  few  cases  in  which  expert  exami- 
nation has  clearly  demonstrated  the  worthless  character 
of  the  seed  concerned  : — 

1.  At   the  first    International    Conference   on   Seed- 
testing   held  at  Hamburg   in   1906,   Dr.  Stebler  of  the 
Zurich    Control    Station     quoted l     a    case    which,    he 
said,  would  give  an  idea  of  the  unclean  state  of  a  clover 
sample.      His  table  shows  that  in  550  grams  (=19.4 
ozs.)  of  the  sample,   no  less  than   8478  seeds  foreign 
to  the  sample  were  present.     These  seeds  represented 
39  species  of  plants,  the  majority  being  weeds  ;  there 
were  in   fact  4500  seeds  of  Plantago  lanceolata,  2240   of 
Daucus  Carota,  1140  of  Cichorium  Intybus,  160  of  Prunella 
alba,  and  1 5 1  of  Cuscuta  Trifolii  (Clover  Dodder). 

2.  In  the  year   1906,   4779  samples   of  seeds  were 
tested  at  the  Royal  Seed  Control  Station  at  Vienna,2  and 
1273  (=26.6    per  cent)  were   infested  with    Dodder; 
996  out  of   2789  samples  of  red  clover  (Trifolium  pra- 
tense),  or  35.5  per  cent,  were  infested.     The  ten  year 
average   shows   that   27.4   per   cent  of   the   red  clover 
samples  have  contained  Dodder. 

3.  Dodder  is  not  so  freely  found  in  clover  seed  in 
Britain,   but   it    is    still    too    common.       In    1905,    for 
example,    1 1   per  cent  of  the  clover  seed  samples  ex- 
amined   by    the    Botanist    to    the    Royal    Agricultural 
Society3  were    condemned  owing  to  the  presence   of 
Dodder  seeds,  two  samples  of    red   clover  containing 
as  much  as  6  per  cent. 

4.  "  In    some   samples    tested  in  the  United   States 
one  which  contained  less  than   i    per  cent  of  impurity 
had   about  3000   weed  seeds   to   the  pound  ;  while  in 

1  Verdhandlungen  der  i.  inter  national  en  Konferenz  fiir  Samenpriifung  zu 
Hamburg  vom  10-14  Sept.  1906,  p.  15. 

2  Organisation    und   Ewtwicklung    der   kaiserl.    konigl.    Samen- Kontrol 
Station  in  Wien  vomjahre  1881  bis  inkl.  1906,  p.  23. 

3  four.  R.A  S.£.,  1905,  p.  162. 


360 


COMMON    WEEDS 


another  sample  in  which  2j  per  cent  was  spurious 
seed,  there  were  more  than  27,600  weed  seeds.  The 
number  of  weed  seeds  sown  to  the  acre  would  be 
enormous,  and  having  an  equal  chance  with  the  crops 
among  which  they  grew,  might  be  the  cause  of  con- 
siderable loss." l 

5.  "The  Board  also  communicated  with  Mr.  D.  D. 
Williams  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Aberystwyth, 
who  has  acted  as  seed  Analyst  to  County  Councils  in 
South  Wales  for  several  years.  In  order  to  make  a 
thorough  investigation,  he  wrote  to  a  very  large  number 
of  his  past  students  for  samples  of  seeds.  Half  the 
amount  sent  him  was  detained  and  analysed  at  the 
College,  and  the  other  half  was  sent  to  the  Aynsome 
Seed-testing  Station,  Grange-over-Sands,  in  order  to 
obtain  independent  opinion  on  the  samples  sent.  Mr. 
Remington,  the  head  of  that  institution,  reported  on  the 
first  five  samples  of  red  clover  sent  as  follows  "  : 2- 


Number. 

Germination 
per  Cent. 

Purity  per 
Cent. 

No.  of  Weed 
Families 
represented. 

Remarks. 

!22  per  cent  is  Trefoil  seed. 

'• 

69 

52 

15 

The  sample  has  been  oiled. 

2. 

72 

80 

26 

\  19  per  cent  is  Trefoil  seed. 
(      This  sample  is  oiled. 

3- 

62 

90 

12 

}  Trefoil  present  ;  also  52  Dod- 
{      der  seeds  in  5  grains. 

4- 

81 

92 

12 

(  This  sample  is  oiled  ;  36  Dod- 
(      der  seeds  in  5  grains. 

5- 

85 

82 

18 

Trefoil  present,  also  Dodder. 

6.  According  to  the  Canadian  Farmers  Advocate,3  a 
chart  supplied  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  showed 
that  in  samples  of  seeds  found  on  sale  in  Ontario  from 

1  Ann.  Report.  Intel.  Div.>  Bd.  Agric.,  1905,  p.  37. 
"  Loc.  at.,  p.  36.  8  February  9,  1905. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        361 

6000  to  15,000  weed  seeds  were  present  in  i  Ib.  of  what 
was  being  sold  as  red  clover,  and  that  in  samples  of 
alsike  clover  as  many  as  23,556  weed  seeds  were  found 
in  one  case,  and  49,830  in  another.  In  the  former  case 
the  sample,  having  only  72  per  cent  of  pure  seed,  was 
priced  at  $5.25  (  =  2is.  lod.)  per  bushel,  or  equal  to  $7.29 
(z=3os.  4d.)  per  bushel  for  the  good  red  clover  seed  it 
contained.  In  the  latter  case  the  sample  priced  at 
$8.00  (  =  335.  4d.)  per  bushel,  and  containing  only  48  per 
cent  of  good  seed,  would  really  cost  $16.66  (  =  693.  5d.) 
per  bushel  for  the  alsike.  "  These  (says  the  Advocate) 
are  startling  figures,  and  though  those  quoted  may  be 
extreme  cases,  all  will  readily  agree  that  if  the  average 
sample  is  one-twentieth  as  bad  in  this  respect,  the  con- 
dition is  truly  alarming." 

7.  In  the  United  States  of  America  clover  seed  tail- 
ings are  sometimes  used  on  the  farm,  the  clean  seed 
being  sent  to  market.      Such  tailings  have  been  found 
to  contain  nearly  272,500  weed   seeds  per  pound.    A 
sample  of  clover  seed  offered  on  the  Chicago  market 
about    1898,   for    2    cents   a   pound,   contained    about 
338,300    weed    seeds    per   pound,   or    more    than    20 
millions  per  bushel.1 

8.  The   Bulletin    referred    to   in    the   last   paragraph 
calls  attention  to  a  point  worthy  of  earnest  attention, 
for  it  is  a  point  frequently  overlooked.    "  Some  samples 
of  seed  contain  such  a  small  amount  (of  weed  seeds) 
that   they   would   be   considered    practically   pure,   but 
even  in  these  the  number  of  weed  seeds  in  a  pound  is 
surprisingly  large.      In  one  sample  that  contained  in  all 
only  one-fifth  of  i  per  cent  of  spurious  seeds,  the  num- 
ber of  weed  seeds  per  pound  averaged  about  990.      In 
a  bushel  of  60  pounds  there  were,  therefore,  more  than 
59,000  weed  seeds."     It  is  quite  clear  that  very  small 

1  U.S.  Dept.  Agric.,  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  ill,  1900,  p.  9. 


362  COMMON    WEEDS 

percentages  of    impurity  may  lead    to  disastrous  con- 
sequences for  the  farmer  who  sows  the  seeds. 

9.  An  American  sample  of   lucerne  seed  was  found 
to  contain  6.8  per  cent  of  weed  seeds,  or  nearly  32,500 
per  pound,  no  less  than  5490  being  Dodder.1 

10.  A  question  as  to  the  adulteration  of  seeds  was 
asked   in   the    House  of  Commons  in    1904,  and  was 
answered  by  the  President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 
"  Mr.  Spear,  having  asked  what  recent  cases  of  adultera- 
tion   or   misrepresentation    in   the   sale  of    farm   seeds 
had  been  brought  to  his  notice,  and   whether  he  had 
considered  the  advisability  of  some  amendment  in  or 
addition   to   the   law  as  it   now   stands   for   the   better 
protection  of  agriculturists  and  honest  seed  merchants, 
Mr.  Fellowes  replies  :    '  A  case  in  which  certain  foreign 
seed  was  sold  as  English  clover  was  recently  brought 
under    the    notice    of    the    Board.     Proceedings   were 
instituted  under  the  Merchandise  Marks  Acts,  and  the 
vendor  was   fined   £10,  with   6s.   Court  fees  and  £21 
towards  the  cost  of  the  prosecution.     This  result  goes 
to  confirm   the  conclusion  arrived   at   by  the  Depart- 
mental Committee  of  1900,  who  expressed  the  opinion 
that   there  is  no  practical  difficulty  under  the  existing 
law   in    the    way   of    obtaining    thoroughly    good    and 
reliable  seeds  by  those  who  know  how  to  set  about  it  ; 
but  we  shall  be  very  happy  to  give  full  consideration  to 
any  representations  or  suggestions  which  may  be  made 
to  us  on  the  subject.' "  2 

The  foregoing  examples  are  but  a  few  of  hundreds 
which  could  be  cited  to  indicate  the  extent  to  which 
farm  seeds  may  be  worthless,  and  the  consequent 
necessity  for  seed  testing. 

1  U.S.  Dept.  Agric. ,  Farmers  Bulletin,  No.  194,  1900,  p.  13. 

2  The  Times,  May  19,  1904. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        363 

SEED  TESTING  B'OR  FARMERS 

A  scientific  account  of  the  whole  system  of  seed 
testing  cannot  be  given  in  a  work  of  this  character, 
which  is  intended  chiefly  for  the  use  of  farmers,  gar- 
deners, and  others.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  our  present 
purpose  to  indicate  the  main  principles  involved  in 
testing  the  general  quality  of  farm  and  garden  seeds. 

It  may  be  first  pointed  out  that  a  complete  analysis 
and  test  of  a  seed  sample  should  show  : — 

1.  Whether  the  seed  is  true  to  name. 

2.  The  degree  of  purity  of  the  seed,  i.e.  whether  it  is 
nearly  all  pure  seed,  or  contains  a  large  percentage  of 
weed  seeds,  rubbish,  or  seeds  of  a  species  not  wanted. 

3.  The  germinating  capacity  of  the  seed,  or  its  capa- 
city  to   germinate   and    produce    strong   plants   under 
suitable  conditions. 

4.  The  origin  of   the  seed,  i.e.  whether  home  grown 
or   foreign,  though   it  may  not   always  be  possible   to 
ascertain  this. 

5.  Whether  the  seeds  are  harbouring  injurious  fungi 
which  may  produce  a  diseased  crop  ;  and 

6.  Whether  the  seeds  are  old,  and   have  been  oiled 
or  otherwise  treated    to  give  them  the   appearance  of 
being  good  seed. 

If  seeds  are  found  to  contain  much  impurity,  to  have 
not  as  high  a  germinating  capacity  as  is  consistent  with 
the  species,  or  to  be  otherwise  not  up  to  a  high  standard, 
they  should  be  immediately  rejected.  Only  reputable 
firms  who  give  some  adequate  guarantee  with  their 
seeds  should  be  dealt  with.  Further,  farmers  and  gar- 
deners are  strongly  recommended  not  to  hesitate  to  pur- 
chase the  best  seed,  which  is  always  more  economical  and 
profitable  in  the  long  run,  even  at  a  much  higher  price, 
than  a  low-priced  seed  of  doubtful  quality,  for  the  latter 


364  COMMON    WEEDS 

entails  much  trouble,  waste  of  time,  and  loss  of  crop. 
When  any  suspicion  attaches  to  the  seed  under  con- 
sideration it  is  the  best  policy  to  leave  it  alone.  Firms 
who  have  once  been  found  to  seek  an  unholy  profit  by 
oiling  old  clover  seed,  by  mixing  rape  or  dead  Charlock 
seed  with  turnip  seed,  or  trefoil  with  lucerne  or  red 
clover,  or  meadow  fescue  with  ryegrass,  &c.,  or  are 
guilty  of  any  act  of  adulteration,  should  be  avoided  as 
unworthy  of  further  confidence. 

Purity  and  germinating  capacity  of  agricultural  seeds 
are  often  closely  related  to  the  quantity  of  weeds  which 
are  found  among  crops.  If  the  seed  samples  contain 
weed  seeds,  or  if  the  seed  partly  fails  to  germinate,  there 
will  be  fewer  cultivated  plants  in  the  soil,  and  hence 
more  room  and  greater  opportunity  for  weeds  to 
increase  and  flourish. 

Taking  a  Sample. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  test- 
ing a  quantity  of  seed  is  to  take  a  representative  sample. 
For  taking  official  samples  various  institutions  have 
their  own  rules,  and  many  instruments  have  been 
designed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  reliable  samples. 
In  order  to  indicate  the  general  principle  it  will  suffice 
here  to  give  the  rules  generally  adopted. 

The  seed  to  be  tested  should  be  drawn  with  a  seed 
sampler  if  possible,  in  order  to  obtain  a  sample  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  bulk.  Small  lots  should  be 
taken  from  the  top,  middle,  and  bottom  of  each  bag. 

The  separate  lots  must  be  mixed  thoroughly  together 
and  divided  into  three  parts,  one  of  which  is  retained 
by  the  merchant,  while  the  other  two  are  forwarded  to 
the  Seed-testing  Station  ;  of  the  latter,  one  is  used  for 
obtaining  the  germinating  capacity  and  other  points  of 
the  sample,  and  the  other  is  kept  for  future  reference  in 
case  of  dispute. 

Samples  taken  by  merchants,  as  well  as  those  taken 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        365 

by  farmers,  for  analysis  by  competent  botanists,  should 
if  possible  be  taken  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  For 
the  farmer's  own  tests  it  is  sufficient,  however,  to 
remove  a  handful  from  the  centre  of  each  of  the  several 
bags  purchased,  and,  after  mixing  these  lots,  a  small 
quantity  of  the  mixture  may  be  taken  for  the  test. 

For  official  samples  2  oz.  of  the  smaller  seeds,  such 
as  grasses,  clovers,  turnip,  rape,  carrot,  flax,  and  parsley, 
will  suffice.  Of  the  larger  seeds,  such  as  mangel,  sain- 
foin, hemp,  elm,  larch,  and  beech,  about  4  oz.  samples 
should  be  taken  ;  while  of  the  cereal  grains,  vetch,  peas, 
beans,  acorns,  &c.,  double  the  latter  quantity  is  required. 

The  Purity  Test  for  Farmers. — It  may  be  said  at  once 
that  the  average  farmer  or  gardener  will  only  be  able  to 
carry  out  the  purity  test  very  roughly,  very  few  being 
able  to  recognise  the  different  weed  seeds  found  in  the 
various  classes  of  agricultural  seeds.  Having  obtained 
a  representative  sample,  however,  it  should  be  carefully 
weighed,  after  which  all  the  seeds  which  are  true  to 
name  should  be  separated  out,  for  which  purpose  the 
sample  may  be  spread  on  a  large  sheet  of  white  paper 
and  sorted  out  with  the  blade  of  a  pocket-knife.  This 
being  done,  the  balance,  consisting  of  dust,  rubbish,  and 
weed  seeds  is  the  impurity.  A  further  weighing  will 
give  its  amount,  when  the  percentage  of  pure  seed  may 
be  calculated.  For  ascertaining  the  purity  a  small 
chemical  or  spring  balance  will  be  necessary  in  order 
that  accurate  weighings  may  be  made.  The  ordinary 
"  purity  "  of  many  seeds  is  given  at  p.  371. 

The  Germinating  Test  for  Farmers. — Having  re- 
moved the  rubbish,  weed  seeds,  and  other  impurities 
from  the  sample,  and  ascertained  the  purity,  200  to 
400  of  the  pure  seeds  are  now  taken  and  separated 
into  two  equal  lots.  Each  of  these  lots  of  100  or  200 
is  then  placed  between  a  folded  piece  of  damp  blotting- 


366 


COMMON    WEEDS 


paper  or  flannel  (the  latter  should  be  washed,  and,  after 
soaking  in  tepid  water,  squeezed  sharply),  and  finally 
deposited  on  an  unglazed  earthenware  saucer,  stood  in 
a  shallow  plate  or  other  vessel  of  water,  and  covered 
with  a  similar  porous  saucer.  A  useful  seed-testing 
vessel  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  103  ;  this  may  be  covered 


Photo,  1909. 


H.  C.  Long. 


FlG.  103. — Seed-testing  Vessel,  of  porous  ware,  with  cover  (perforations  in  cover 

not  shown). 

with  a  perforated  cover  or  with  a  glass  disc,  and  is 
stood  in  a  shallow  saucer  of  water.  Seeds  so  treated 
and  placed  in  a  moderately  warm  room  will,  if  of  good 
quality,  germinate  readily.  (For  the  periods  necessary 
for  germination  see  p.  371.)  The  seeds  must  not  be 
too  close  together ;  saucers  of  different  sizes  are  used 
generally  according  to  the  size  of  the  seeds  to  be 
tested.  It  will  be  found  that  thin,  apparently  empty 
seeds  do  not  germinate  at  all,  and  very  old  seed 
germinates  very  irregularly  or  not  at  all.  With  high- 
class  well-filled  seeds,  germination  is  regular  and 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING        367 

spread    over    a    short   period   from    the    day  the    first 
sprouting  is  observed. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  "  seed-bed  "  (blotting- 
paper  or  flannel)  is  kept  moist,  and  each  species  should 
be  allowed  the  times  mentioned  at  p.  371  in  which  to 
germinate.  The  seeds  which  germinate  strongly  may 
be  removed  from  day  to  day  and  the  number  noted. 
The  average  of  not  less  than  two  separate  lots  of  seed 
should  be  obtained.  The  germinating  capacities  to  be 
expected  from  good  samples  of  farm  seeds  are  given  at 

P-  371- 

True  Value  of  Seed.  —  It  is  clear  that  if  the  sample 
under  consideration  is  very  impure  the  germinating 
capacity  alone  may  give  but  a  very  inadequate  idea  of 
the  value  of  the  seed.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
consider  the  two  points  together,  and  ascertain  the 
combined  percentage  value  of  purity  and  germinating 
capacity.  This  may  be  done  as  follows  :  —  Suppose  P 
is  the  percentage  of  purity,  G  the  germinating  capacity, 
and  T  the  true  or  real  value  of  the  seed.  Then 

PxG_T 

IOO 

For  example,  if  the  purity  be  95  per  cent  and  the 
germinating  capacity  80  per  cent,  then  we  have 


IOO 

In  other  words,  such  a  sample  would  contain  no  more 
than  76  Ib.  of  good  seed  in  every  100  Ib.  purchased  ; 
or,  to  put  it  another  way,  there  will  be  a  loss  of  243. 
on  every  .£5  worth  of  seed.  At  the  same  time,  if  the 
5  per  cent  of  impurity  consists  of  weed  seeds,  great 
trouble  may  be  entailed  by  using  the  seed  on  the 
farm. 


368  COMMON    WEEDS 

Although  the  foregoing  brief  account  is  given  to 
enable  the  farmer  or  gardener  to  make  rough  tests 
for  his  own  satisfaction  at  home,  we  still  believe  it  will, 
in  general,  be  wiser  for  the  average  purchaser  to 
submit  samples  for  expert  opinion.  There  are,  how- 
ever, a  number  of  well-known  firms  whose  seeds  may 
be  absolutely  relied  on  to  be  what  they  profess. 

WEED  SEEDS  IN  COMMERCIAL  SAMPLES  OF  CLOVER 
AND  GRASS  SEEDS 

As  already  pointed  out,  many  weeds  gain  access  to 
the  farm  in  impurities  in  commercial  samples  of  red, 
white,  and  alsike  clovers,  kidney  vetch,  lucerne,  rye- 
grass,  timothy  and  other  grasses  used  for  sowing  down 
temporary  pastures. 

Many  farm  seeds  of  this  class  are  harvested  from 
unclean  land,  or  gathered  by  hand  by  women  and 
children  who  have  no  very  special  incentive  to  gather 
the  right  kind  of  seed  exclusively.  On  this  account 
there  is  necessity  for  thorough  cleaning  operations, 
which  should  be  carried  out  when  the  sample  reaches 
the  seedsman.  Unfortunately  farmers  do  not  exercise 
all  the  care  which  they  might  in  the  purchase  of  their 
seeds,  and  they  are  not  infrequently  offered,  by  irre- 
sponsible persons,  samples  of  clovers  and  ryegrass 
which  have  not  been  through  suitable  machinery, 
which  would  clear  out  all  objectionable  weed  seeds. 

The  only  way  to  deal  with  trouble  of  this  kind  is 
to  purchase  direct  from  seedsmen  who  have  properly 
equipped  establishments  in  which  their  wares  can  be 
thoroughly  cleaned,  and  whose  reputation  for  a  good 
article  is  worthy  of  being  maintained. 

The  plants  whose  seeds  are  most  commonly  found 
among  farm  seeds  are  given  below.  With  proper 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING 


369 


handling,  however,  few  of  them  should  appear  in  well- 
cleaned  samples. 


In  Samples  of  Clovers 


Ranunculus  acris 

„  repens 

Papaver  Rhoeas 

„        dubium 
Fumaria  officinalis 
Sisymbrium  officinale 
Barbarea  vulgaris 
Thlaspi  arvense 
Lepidium  campestre 
Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris 
Viola  tricolor 
Reseda  lutea 
Silene  inflata 
Arenaria  serpyllifolia 
Cerastium  triviale 
Stellaria  graminea 

„        media 
Geranium  pusillum 

„          dissectum 

,,          molle 
Melilotus  officinalis 

„         alba 
Trifolium  arvense 

„         procumbens 

„         minus 
Lotus  corniculatus 

„      major 
Scleranthus  annuus 
Torilis  Anthriscus 
Anthriscus  sylvestris 
Daucus  Carota 
Sherardia  arvensis 
Galium  Aparine 
Knautia  arvensis 
Anthemis  arvensis 
Matricaria  inodora 


Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum 

„  segetum 

Cnicus  arvensis 
Centaurea  Cyanus 
Lapsana  communis 
Cichorium  Intybus 
Sonchus  oleraceus 

„        asper 
Crepis  virens 
Cuscuta  Trifolii 

„        europaea 

„        racemosa 

„        chilensis 
Echium  vulgare 
Hyoscyamus  niger 
Linaria  spuria 

„       officinalis 

„       arvensis 
Euphrasia  officinalis 
Calamintha  Acinos 
Stachys  arvensis 
Prunella  vulgaris 
Anagallis  arvensis 
Plantago  major 

,,         lanceolata 
Chenopodium  album 
Atriplex  patula 
Rumex  crispus 

,,       Acetosella 

„       Acetosa 
Polygonum  lapathifolium 
„  Persicaria 

,,  Aviculare 

„  Convolvulus 

Carex,  sp. 


It  may  be  noted  here  that  certain  of  these  plants  are 
not  dealt  with  in  this  volume. 


2  A 


37° 


COMMON    WEEDS 


In  Samples  of  Grass  Seeds 

THE   SMALLER    SEEDS    MOSTLY    IN    TIMOTHY   AND 
OTHER    SMALL-SEEDED    SPECIES 


Ranunculus  acris 

„          repens 
Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris 
Viola  tricolor 
Lychnis  Flos-cuculi 
Arenaria  serpyllifolia 
Stellaria  graminea 

„        media 
Geranium  dissectum 

„         pusillum 
Trifolium  procumbens 
Scleranthus  annuus 
Anthriscus  sylvestris 
Galium  Aparine 
Knautia  arvensis 
Anthemis  arvensis 
Chrysanthemum  segetum 

,,  Leucanthemum 

Cnicus  arvensis 
Centaurea  Cyanus 
Lapsana  communis 
Leontodon  autumnalis 


Hypochaeris  radicata 
Sonchus  oleraceus 
Crepis  virens 
Euphrasia  officinalis 
Prunella  vulgaris 
Plantago  major 

„  lanceolata 
Chenopodium  album 
Rumex  crispus 

„       Acetosella 

„       Acetosa 
Polygonum  lapathifolium 
Carex  sp. 

Agrostis  Spica-venti 
Festuca  myurus 
Molinia  casrulea 
Bromus  secalinus 
Triticum  repens 
Lolium  temulentum 
Nardus  stricta 
Aira  caryophyllea 
flexuosa 


It  may  be  noted  here  that  certain  of  these  plants  are 
not  dealt  with  in  this  volume. 

Illustrations  of  seventy-six  species  of  weed  seeds  are 
shown  in  three  Plates  in  Appendix  I. 

A  reference  collection  of  weed  seeds  embracing  over 
200  species  found  in  commercial  samples  of  clovers  is 
issued  by  Professor  J.  Percival,  M.A.,  University  College, 
Reading. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SEED    TESTING         371 


Farm  Seeds 
USUAL    PURITY   AND    GERMINATING    CAPACITY 


Purity 
(per  cent). 

Germinating 
capacity 
(per  cent). 

Aver,  time  in 
which  seeds 
germinate.* 
Days. 

Cabbage                                          < 

QO—  08 

QO—  QC 

2 

Swede  Turnip      .... 

vw  y^ 

55 

7            /  J 

55 

55 

White       „          '. 

» 

55 

55 

Black  Mustard    .... 

55 

85-90 

5> 

White        „           .... 

98 

95 

55 

Lucerne       ..... 

96-93 

92-98 

3 

Yellow  Trefoil      . 

5) 

90-95 

55 

Crimson  Clover  .... 

90-95 

90-95 

55 

Red              „       . 

98 

95-98 

55 

Alsike           „ 

98 

)) 

55 

White           „        .         . 

98 

V 

55 

Kidney  Vetch      .... 

95 

» 

55 

Bird's-foot  Clover 

98 

95 

55 

Sainfoin       ..... 

98-100 

90 

4-6 

Carrot           ..... 

95 

70 

6 

Parsnip        

95 

60 

55 

Mangold  (fruits)  . 

98-100 

125 

55 

Buckwheat  ..... 

)) 

85 

4 

Sweet  Vernal  Grass     . 

96 

60 

5 

Meadow  Foxtail  .... 

96 

75-80 

6 

Timothy       

98 

90 

4 

Golden  Oat  Grass 

98 

60-70 

5 

Tall          „         „           ... 

98 

90 

T> 

Crested  Dogstail 

96 

80 

?» 

Cocksfoot    

98 

80-90 

7 

Smooth-stalked  Meadow-grass   . 

98 

60-70 

» 

Rough 

5J 

55 

5> 

Meadow  Fescue  .... 

98 

90-95 

5 

Hard  Fescue       .... 

96 

70-80 

7 

Sheep's  Fescue    .... 

5» 

55 

?5 

Perennial  Ryegrass     . 

98-100 

95 

5 

Italian               „            ... 

55 

55 

55 

*  These  figures  refer  to  "energy  of  germination,"  or  the  speed  at  which 
high-class  samples  germinate.  In  order  to  complete  a  test  of  germinating 
capacity,  however,  up  to  ten  days  should  be  allowed  in  the  case  of  the  first 
thirteen  species  in  the  list,  and  up  to  fourteen  days  for  the  rest,  except  Poas, 
for  which  a  month  should  be  allowed. 


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Fruchtfolge  und  Ktdtur.  1892. 

Kirchner,  Dr.  O.,  Die  Krankheiten  und  Beschadigungen  unsercr 
Landwirtschaftlichen  Kulturpflanzen  (1906). 

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Korsmo,  Emil,  Kampen  mod  Ugrcesset  (1906). 

Landvuirtschaftlichesjahrbuch  der  Schiueiz,  1908,  Heft  i. 

Long,  H.  C.,  "Some  Troublesome  Weeds"  (Farm  and  Home  Year- 
Book,  1910). 

Long,  James,  "  Possibilities  of  British  Agriculture  under  Free  Trade  " 
(Co-operative  Wholesale  Societies'  Annual,  1905). 

M 'Alpine,  A.  N.,  and  Wright,  R.  P.,  "Weeds  and  Weeding"  (High- 
land and  Agric.  Soc.  Trans.,  1894). 

M'Connell,  Primrose — 

Agricultural  Note- Book  of  Facts  and  Figures. 
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MacDougall,  Dr.  R.  §.,  "  Leguminous  Plant  Poisoning"  (Jour.  Bot. 
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Massee,  Geo.,  F.L.S.,  Text-Book  of  Plant  Diseases  (1899). 

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Morton's  Hand- Books  of  the  Farm,  No.  iii.,  "The  Crops." 

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1901-1908. 


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before  the  Farmers'  Club,  April  1902). 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX    I 
ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  WEED  SEEDS.     PLATE  I. 

ALL  seeds  on  this  plate,  except  Nos.  4,  8,  18,  and  20, 
are  shown  natural  size,  and  in  two  positions  magnified. 
The  four  specified  are  shown  natural  size,  and  in  only 
one  position  magnified. 

1.  Acrid  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris  L.). 

2.  Creeping  Buttercup  (R.  repens  L.). 

3.  Corn  or  Field  Buttercup  (R.  arvensis  L.). 

4.  Common  Scarlet  Poppy  (Papaver  Rh&as  L.). 

5.  Charlock  (Sinapts  arvensis  L.). 

6.  Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris  DC.). 

7.  Field  Pepperwort  (Lepidium  campestre  Br.). 

8.  Penny  Cress  (Thlaspi  arvense  L.). 

9.  Wild    Radish,    White     Charlock    (Raphanus    Raphanis- 

trum  L.). 

10.  Corn  Pansy  (  Viola  tricolor  L.). 

11.  Bladder  Campion  (Silene  inflata  Sm.). 

12.  White  or  Evening  Campion  (Lychnis  vespertina  Sibth.). 

13.  Corn  Cockle  (Agrostemma  Githago  L.). 

14.  Mouse-ear  Chickweed  (Cerastium  triviale  Link.). 

15.  Chickweed  (Ste  I/aria  media  L.). 

16.  Spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis  L.). 

17.  Dove's-foot  Crane's-bill  (Geranium  molle  L.). 

1 8.  Cut-leaved  Crane's-bill  (G.  dissectum  L.). 

19.  Rest  Harrow  (Ononis  spinosa  L.). 

20.  Tufted  Vetch  (Vicia  Cracca  L.). 

21.  Silver- weed  (Potentilla  Anserina  L.). 

22.  Salad  Burnet  (Poterium  Sanguisorba  L.). 

23.  Wild  Carrot  (Daucus  Carota  L.). 

24.  Cleavers  (Galium  Aparine  L.). 

378 


•  0 


/SL 


a  I 


15 


/6 


ia 


22 


PLATE  I.— WEED  SEEDS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  WEED   SEEDS.     PLATE  II. 

All  the  seeds  on   this  plate  are  shown  natural  size, 
and  in  one  or  two  positions  magnified. 

25.  Field  Madder  (Sherardia  arvensis  L.). 

26.  Field  Scabious  (Scabiosa  arvensis  L.). 

27.  Cudweed  (Gnaphalium  sylvaticum  L.). 

28.  Stinking  Mayweed  (Anthemis  Cotula  L.). 

29.  Scentless  Mayweed  (Matricaria  inodora  L.). 

30.  Corn  Marigold  {Chrysanthemum  segetum  L.). 

31.  Ox-eye  Daisy  (C.  Leucanthennim  L.). 

32.  Coltsfoot  (Tussilago  Farfara  L.). 

33.  Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris  L.). 

34.  Ragwort  (S.  Jacobcea  L.). 

35.  Burdock  (Arclium  Lappa  L.). 

36.  Knapweed  (Centaurea  nigra  L.). 

37.  Cornflower  (C.  Cyanus  L.). 

38.  Spear  Thistle  (Cnicus  lanceolatus  Hoffm.). 

39.  Creeping  Thistle  (C.  arvensis  Hoffm.). 

40.  Nipplewort  (Lapsana  communis  L.). 

41.  Dandelion  (Taraxacum  offidnale  Web.). 

42.  Cat's-ear  (Hypochceris  radicata  L.). 

43.  Perennial  or  Corn  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  arvensis  L.). 

44.  Chicory  (Cichorium  Intybus  L.). 

45.  Autumn  Hawkbit  (Lcontodon  autumnalis  L.). 

46.  Scarlet  Pimpernel  (Anagallis  arvensis  L.). 

47.  Viper's  Bugloss  (Echium  vulgare  L.). 

48.  Corn  Gromwell  (Lithospermum  arvense  L.). 

49.  Field  Forget-me-not  (Myosotis  arvensis  Hoffm.). 

50.  Field      Convolvulus,      Small      Bindweed      (Convolvulus 

arvensis  L.). 

51.  Clover  Dodder  (Cuscuta  Trifolii  Bab.). 

52.  Dodder  (C.  racemosa  Mart.). 

380 


B.R 


PLATE  II.— WEED  SEEDS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  WEED  SEEDS.     PLATE  III. 

All  the  seeds  on  this  plate  are  shown   natural  size, 
and  in  one  or  two  positions  magnified. 

53.  Ribwort  Plantain  (Plantago  lanceolata  L.). 

54.  Broad-leaved  Plantain  (P.  major  L.). 

55.  Yellow  Toadflax  (Linaria  vulgaris  Mill). 

56.  Eyebright  (Euphrasia  officinalis  L.). 

57.  (Wall)  Speedwell  (Veronica  arvensis  L.). 

58.  Yellow  Rattle  (Rhinanthus  Crista-galli  \..\ 

59.  Broom-rape  (Orobanche  minor  Sutt.). 

60.  Self-heal  (Prunella  vulgaris  L.). 

61.  Annual  Knawel  (Scleranthus  annuits  L.). 

62.  Goosefoot,  Fat  Hen  (Chenopodium  album  L  ). 

63.  Spreading  Orache  (A triplex patula  L.). 

64.  Knotgrass  (Polygonum  Aviculare  L.). 

65.  Persicaria,  Redshank  (P.  Persicaria  L.). 

66.  Curled  Dock  (Rumex  crispus  L.). 

67.  Sheep's  Sorrel  (R.  Acetosella  L.). 

68.  Wild  Onion  (Allium  vineale  L.). 

69.  Slender  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  agrestis  L.). 

70.  Fine  Bent-grass,  Black  Couch  (Agrostis  vulgaris  With.). 

71.  Yorkshire  Fog  (Holcus  lanatus  L.). 

72.  Wild  Oat  (Avenafatua  L.). 

73.  Soft  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  mollis  L.). 

74.  Darnel  (Lolium  temulentum  L.). 

75.  Tufted  Hair-grass  (Aira  ccespitosa  L.). 

76.  Couch  (Triticum  repens  L.). 


382 


PLATE  III.— WEED  SEEDS. 


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APPENDIX   III 

LEGISLATION    ENFORCING    THE    DESTRUCTION    OF 

NOXIOUS  WEEDS  IN  THE  CHIEF  AGRICULTURAL 

COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD 

LEGISLATION  for  the  prevention  of  the  dissemination  of  noxious 
weeds  exists  in  the  majority  of  the  chief  agricultural  countries  of 
the  world.  In  the  British  Empire  more  or  less  stringent  laws 
in  this  behalf  are  on  the  Statute  Books  of  the  Australasian  and 
South  African  Colonies ;  but  in  the  British  Islands  the  only  laws 
requiring  the  destruction  of  weeds  refer  to  Ireland  and  the 
Isle  of  Man.  A  summary  of  these  laws,  and  of  those  of  such 
foreign  countries  for  which  it  has  been  found  possible  to  obtain 
information,  is  given  below. 

UNITED  KINGDOM 

There  are  no  laws  or  regulations  in  force  in  Great  Britain 
which  render  compulsory  the  destruction  of  weeds ;  but  it  will 
be  of  interest  if  the  provisions  of  the  Adulteration  of  Seeds  Acts, 
1869  and  1878,  are  stated  here. 

The  Adulteration  of  Seeds  Act,  1869,  provides  that  every 
person  who,  with  intent  to  defraud  or  to  enable  another  person 
to  defraud,  "  kills  or  causes  to  be  killed  any  seeds ;  or,  dyes  or 
causes  to  be  dyed  any  seeds ;  or,  sells  or  causes  to  be  sold  any 
killed  or  dyed  seeds,"  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding 
^5  for  a  first  offence,  or  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  ^50  for  a 
second  or  subsequent  offence.  In  the  case  of  a  second  or 
subsequent  offence  the  Court  is  empowered,  besides  inflicting 
the  penalty,  "to  order  the  offender's  name,  occupation,  place 
of  abode,  and  place  of  business,  and  particulars  of  his 
punishment  under  this  Act,  to  be  published,  at  the  expense  of 
such  offender,  in  such  newspaper  or  newspapers,  or  in  such 

409 


4io  APPENDIX    III 

other  manner  as  the  Court  may  think  fit  to  prescribe."  Under 
this  Act  it  is  not  necessary  to  prove  an  intent  to  defraud  any 
particular  person  or  to  enable  any  particular  person  to  defraud 
another  particular  person,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  the 
accused  party  did  the  act  with  an  intent  to  defraud  or  to  enable 
some  or  any  other  person  to  defraud.  In  this  Act  the  term  "  to 
kill  seeds "  is  defined  as  destroying  the  vitality  or  germinating 
power  of  such  seeds  by  artificial  means. 

The  Adulteration  of  Seeds  Act,  1878,  defines  the  term  "to 
dye  seeds"  in  the  Act  of  1869  as  meaning  the  application  to 
seeds  of  any  process  of  colouring,  dyeing  or  sulphur  smoking. 

Some  indications  as  to  the  legal  aspect  of  the  subject  will  be 
gathered  from  the  following  summaries  of  cases  quoted  in 
Dixon's  Law  of  the  Farm  : — 

It  is  a  nuisance  if  a  man  allows  the  boughs  of  his  trees  so  to 
grow  that  they  overhang  his  neighbour's  land  (Lonsdale  (Earl)  v. 
Nelson,  2  L.  J.  (O.  S.)  K.  B.,  28  ;  2  B.  &  C.,  31 1).  The  owner  of 
land  so  overhung  is  entitled,  without  notice,  if  he  does  not  tres- 
pass on  his  neighbour's  land,  to  cut  the  branches  so  far  as  they 
overhang,  even  though  they  have  done  so  for  more  than  20  years 
(Lemmon  v.  Webb,  63  L.  S.,  ch.  570  [1895]  A.  C).  See  also, 
with  regard  to  poisonous  trees,  Wilson  v.  Newberry,  41  L.  J., 
Q.  B.,  31 ;  L.  R.,  7  Q.  B.,  31.  In  Crowhurst  v.  Amersham  Burial 
Board  (48  L.  J.,  Ex.,  109  \  4  Ex.  D.,  5)  a  Burial  Board  was  held 
liable  for  the  loss  of  a  horse  poisoned  by  eating  leaves  of  a  yew 
tree  planted  in  the  cemetery  belonging  to  the  Board,  which  had 
grown  through  and  over  their  fence  and  projected  on  to  the 
meadow  occupied  by  the  plaintiff.  Kelly,  C.B.,  said  :  "  We  do  not 
think  that  the  plaintiff  was  bound  to  examine  all  the  boundaries 
to  see  that  no  tree  likely  to  be  injurious  to  his  horse  was  pro- 
jecting over  the  field  he  had  hired."  In  Ponting  v.  Noakes  (63 
L.  J.j  Q.  B.,  549;  [1894]  2  Q.  B.,  281)  the  parties  occupied 
adjoining  fields,  separated  by  a  fence  and  ditch  belonging  to 
defendants.  The  ditch  was  on  the  plaintiff's  side,  the  edge  of 
the  ditch  being  his  boundary.  On  the  defendants'  side  was  a 
yew  tree,  the  branches  of  which  extended  over  the  hedge  and 
partly  over  the  ditch;  but  no  part  extended  up  to  or  over  the 
plaintiff's  boundary.  The  defendants  were  under  no  liability  to 
fence  against  their  neighbour's  cattle.  Plaintiff's  horse  ate  of 
the  branches  extending  over  the  ditch,  and  died  therefrom ;  and 


APPENDIX    III  411 

the  plaintiff  brought  an  action  for  damages.  The  Court  held 
that  there  was  no  liability,  inasmuch  as  there  was  no  duty  on 
defendants  not  to  grow  a  poisonous  tree  on  their  property, 
even  though  it  might  be  so  near  the  boundary  as  possibly  to  be 
accessible  to  the  plaintiff's  cattle.  This  case  differed  from  the 
Amersham  case  cited  above,  because  there  the  tree  extended 
over  the  plaintiff's  land,  and  defendants  were  liable  on  the  prin- 
ciple laid  down  in  Rylands  v.  Fletcher  (37  L.  J.,  Ex.  161 ;  L.  R., 
3,  H.  L.,  330)  that  the  person  who,  for  his  own  purposes,  brings 
on  his  land,  and  collects  and  keeps  there,  anything  likely  to  do 
mischief,  is  liable  if  it  escapes  and  does  mischief. 

An  interesting  decision  was  given  in  the  case  of  Giles  v. 
Walker  (59  L.  J.,  Q.B.,  416 ;  24  Q.  B.  D.,  656),  where  it  was  held 
that  an  occupier  of  land  is  under  no  duty  towards  his  neigh- 
bour periodically  to  cut  the  thistles  naturally  growing  on  his 
land,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from  seeding ;  and  if,  dwing  to  his 
neglect  to  cut  them,  the  seeds  are  blown  to  his  neighbour's  land 
and  do  damage  he  is  not  liable. 

As  regards  the  cleansing  of  watercourses  in  England,  Section 
14  of  the  Land  Drainage  Act  enacts  that  where,  by  the  neglect 
of  an  occupier  to  cleanse  and  scour,  or  to  join  in  cleansing  and 
scouring,  the  channels  of  existing  drains,  streams,  or  watercourses 
in  or  bounding  his  lands,  injury  is  caused  to  other  land,  the 
occupier  of  that  land  may  serve  a  notice  requiring  the  offending 
occupier  to  maintain  the  banks  or  cleanse  and  scour  the  channel, 
or  in  default  do  it  himself  and  recover  a  proper  proportion  of 
the  cost.  (See  also  Leaflet  No.  1 8 1 ,  Board  of  Agriculture  and 
Fisheries.) 

IRELAND 

A  Seed-testing  Station  has  already  been  established  by  the 
Irish  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  order  that  the  danger  of 
using  impure  seed,  and  thereby  increasing  the  spread  of  weeds 
and  correspondingly  decreasing  the  yield  of  the  crop,  may  as  far 
as  possible  be  obviated.  The  Station  furnishes  for  each  sample 
a  statement  of  the  percentage  and  nature  of  the  impurity,  and 
the  percentage  of  germination.  Farmers  are  charged  3d.  per 
sample,  and  seedsmen  is.,  for  a  report  on  purity,  and  2S.  if  a 
germination  report  be  also  required. 

In  1909  the  Weeds  and  Agricultural  Seeds  (Ireland)  Act, 


412  APPENDIX    III 

1909,  was  passed  to  prevent  the  spread  of  noxious  weeds  in 
Ireland,  and  to  make  provision  for  the  testing  of  agricultural 
seeds.  This  Act  vests  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
Technical  Instruction  power,  with  the  consent  of  the  Council 
of  any  county,  to  declare  Ragwort,  Charlock,  Coltsfoot,  Thistle, 
and  Dock  to  be  noxious  weeds  throughout  the  county.  It  pro- 
vides that  notices  may  be  served  on  occupiers  of  land,  ordering 
them  to  destroy,  in  the  manner  specified,  the  noxious  weeds 
thereon,  and  defaulters  are  rendered  liable  to  penalties  not 
exceeding  £$  for  a  first  offence,  or  £10  for  a  second  or 
subsequent  offence.  The  Act  empowers  the  Inspectors  of  the 
Department  to  enter  upon  land  in  order  to  search  for  noxious 
weeds.  The  County  or  District  Council  is  regarded  as  the 
occupier  of  roads. 

The  Act  further  makes  provision  for  taking  samples  of  certain 
agricultural  seeds,  and  for  their  testing  for  purity  and  germina- 
tion. The  names  and  addresses  of  the  persons  upon  whose 
premises  the  samples  were  taken  may  be  published,  together 
with  the  results  of  the  tests.  This  Act  came  into  force  on 
January  i,  1910. 

ISLE  OF  MAN 

In  the  Isle  of  Man  the  "Weeds  Act,  1900,"  is  designed  to 
secure  the  destruction  of  weeds  defined  as  "  thistles,  cushags, 
and  common  docks."  If  weeds  growing  on  any  land,  including 
the  half  of  any  public  road  adjoining  thereto  (other  than  roads 
usually  repaired  by  the  Highway  Board),  remain  uncut  on  the  i  st 
August  in  any  year,  or  sooner  period  when  they  are  developing 
flowers,  Commissioners  of  Districts  may  serve  notices  upon  the 
occupiers  of  such  lands  requiring  the  weeds  to  be  cut;  and  if 
the  cutting  is  not  carried  out  within  ten  days  thereafter  the 
occupier  is  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  £10,  and  to  a 
further  penalty  not  exceeding  £i  for  each  day  that  the  offence 
is  continued.  A  Court  of  Summary  Jurisdiction  has  power  to 
authorise  a  person  to  cut  down  the  weeds,  having  regard  to  the 
state  of  cultivation  and  cropping;  and  a  Justice  of  the  Peace 
may,  on  complaint  from  the  Commissioners  or  from  any  person 
residing  within  one  mile  of  the  land,  authorise  a  person  to  enter 
the  land  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  in  fact  such  weeds  are 
present  thereon. 


APPENDIX    III  413 

CANADA 

By  the  Seed  Control  Act  (4  &  5  Ed.  VII.,  c.  41)  the  Governor 
in  Council  may  make  regulations  determining  the  maximum  pro- 
portion of  the  seeds  of  the  weeds  mentioned  below  that  may 
be  tolerated  in  agricultural  and  other  seeds  without  affecting 
their  character  as  being  free  from  the  seeds  of  the  said  weeds. 
The  Act  gives  powers  of  entry  for  inspection  and  taking  of 
samples.  Its  provisions  do  not,  however,  apply  to  persons  grow- 
ing or  selling  seed  for  the  purpose  of  food,  or  selling  or  storing 
seed  which  is  to  be  cleaned  and  graded,  or  which  is  marked 
"  not  absolutely  clean  "  and  held  or  sold  for  export  only. 

The  prohibitory  clauses  of  the  Act  require  that  no  person 
shall  sell,  or  offer,  expose  or  have  in  his  possession  for  sale,  for 
the  purpose  of  seeding,  any  seeds  of  cereals,  grasses,  clovers  or 
forage  plants,  unless  they  are  free  from  any  seeds  of  the  follow- 
ing weeds : — 

Wild  Mustard  or  Charlock  (Brassica  Sinapistrum  Boiss.  =  Sinapis 

arvensis  L.) 

Tumbling  Mustard  (Sisymbrium  Sinapistrum  Crantz.) 
Hare's-ear  Mustard  (Cortngia  orie?italis  (L.)  Dumort.) 
Ball  Mustard  (Neslia paniculata  Desv.) 
Field  Penny  Cress  or  Stinkweed  (  Thlaspi  aruense  L.) 
Wild  Oats  (Avena  fatua  L.  and  A.  strigosa  Schreb.) 
Bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis  L.) 
Perennial  Sow  Thistle  (Sonchus  arvensis  L.) 
Ragweed  (Ambrosia  artemisicefolia  L.) 
Great  Ragweed  (Ambrosia  trifida  L.) 
Purple  Cockle  (Lychnis  Githago  Lam.) 
Cow  Cockle  (  Vaccaria  Vaccaria  (L.)  Britton) 
Orange  Hawkweed  or  Paint  Brush  (Hieracium  aurantiacum  L. 

and  Hieracium  prcealtum  Vill.) 
The  Sclerotia  known  as  Ergot  of  Rye  (Claviceps  purpurea  Tul.), 

unless  each  and  every  receptacle,  package,  sack,  or  bag  contain- 
ing such  seeds,  or  a  label  securely  attached  thereto,  is  marked  in 
a  plain  and  indelible  manner — 

(a)  with  the  full  name  and  address  of  the  seller ; 

(b)  with  the  name  of  the  kind  or  kinds  of  seed ; 

(c)  with  the  common  name  or  names  of  the  weeds  named, 

the  seeds  of  which  are  present  in  the  seed  sold,  offered, 
or  exposed  or  had  in  possession  for  sale. 


414  APPENDIX    III 

Further,  no  person  shall  sell,  or  offer,  expose  or  have  in  his 
possession  for  sale,  any  seeds  of  timothy,  red  clover,  alsike,  or 
any  mixture  containing  the  said  seeds,  in  or  from  any  receptacle, 
package,  sack,  or  bag  upon  which  is  marked  "  No.  i  "  or  any 
other  designation  which  represents  such  seeds  as  of  first  quality, 
unless  they  are  free  from  the  seeds  of  the  above-mentioned 
weeds,  and  are  also  free  from  the  seeds  of— 

White  Cockle  (Lychnis  vespertina  Sibth.). 

Night-flowering  Catchfly  \Silene  noctiflora  L.). 

False  Flax  (Camelina  sativa  Crantz.). 

Canada  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis  Hoffm.). 

Ox-eye  Daisy  (Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum  L.). 

Curled  Dock  (Rumex  crispus  L.). 

Blue  Weed  (Echium  vulgare  L.). 

Ribgrass  (Plantago  lanceolata  L.). 

Chicory  (Cichorium  Intybus  L.). 

They  must  also  contain  not  less  than  99  per  cent  of  the 
seeds  represented,  or  seeds  of  other  useful  and  harmless  grasses 
or  clovers,  of  which  99  per  cent  90  must  be  germinable. 

No  person  shall  sell,  or  offer,  expose  or  have  in  his  posses- 
sion for  sale  for  the  purpose  of  seeding  in  Canada,  any  seeds  of 
timothy,  alsike  or  red  clover,  or  any  mixture  containing  the  said 
seeds,  if  the  seeds  of  the  weeds  mentioned  in  the  Act  are  present 
in  a  greater  proportion  than  5  in  1000  of  the  seed  sold,  &c. 

Penalties  to  the  extent  of  1-25  dollars  per  bag  are  levied  in 
respect  of  offences  against  the  Act,  and  the  person  on  whose 
behalf  the  seed  is  sold,  &c.,  is  prima  facie  liable  for  the  violation 
of  the  Act. 

The  Act  also  makes  provision  for  the  analysis  and  testing 
of  seeds. 

The  object  of  the  Act  is  not  to  induce  farmers  to  purchase 
for  their  own  use  seeds  of  a  better  quality  than  they  desire, 
except  in  so  far  as  noxious  weeds  are  held  to  be  a  public 
nuisance,  but  to  provide  means  whereby  users  of  seeds  may 
protect  themselves  against  the  introduction  of  noxious  weeds 
on  their  lands,  and  to  fix  a  minimum  standard  alike  of  purity 
and  vitality.  Specimens  of  100  noxious  weeds  may  be  obtained 
by  seed  merchants  from  the  Seed  Branch  of  the  Department  of 


APPENDIX    III  415 

Agriculture,  Ottawa,  in  order  to  assist  them  in  the  identification 
of  the  species. 

In  the  tests  for  purity  the  report  must  state,  inter  alia,  the 
number  of  the  seeds  of  the  scheduled  weeds  found  in  the 
sample,  and  the  number  per  1000  seeds;  and  in  the  case  of 
timothy,  alsike,  or  red  clover,  described  as  first  quality,  the 
percentage  of  useless  and  harmful  seeds  not  named  in  the  Act. 

The  various  Provinces  of  the  Dominion  have  passed  laws  on 
the  subject,  which  may  be  briefly  summarised  as  follows : — 

In  Manitoba  the  "Noxious  Weeds  Act"  of  1906  schedules, 
among  other  weeds,  Common  Wild  Mustard  (Charlock),  Canada 
(or  Creeping)  Thistle,  Perennial  Sow  Thistle,  Wild  Oats,  "  Stink- 
weed"  (Penny  Cress),  and  False  Flax,  and  all  other  noxious 
weeds  to  which  the  Act  may  be  extended  by  municipal  by-law. 
Owners  and  occupants  of  land  are  compelled  to  cut  down  or 
destroy  the  above-mentioned  weeds  in  time  to  prevent  seeding, 
and  this  provision  extends  to  railway  companies  as  regards  land 
in  their  possession.  In  default  a  fine  of  from  5  to  25  dollars 
may  be  levied,  and  in  addition  a  fine  of  5  dollars  for  each  day 
of  neglect  subsequent  to  conviction.  Powers  are  given  for  In- 
spectors to  enter  premises  of  defaulters  and  destroy  the  weeds, 
even  when  they  are  among  growing  crops.  Powers  are  also 
given  for  the  searching  of  seed  warehouses  for  traces  of  seeds  of 
noxious  weeds.  Vendors  of  seeds — whether  for  seed  or  fodder 
—which  are  found  to  contain  seeds  of  noxious  weeds  are  liable 
to  fines  of  from  10  to  100  dollars,  and  to  the  destruction  of 
the  seed  sold;  while  for  exporting  cleanings  or  refuse  from 
elevators  or  mills  which  are  found  to  contain  noxious  seeds,  the 
owners  are  liable  to  fines  ranging  from  25  to  100  dollars.  The 
Lieutenant-Governor  in  Council  has  power  to  make  further 
regulations  if  necessary. 

In  Ontario,  Chapter  279  of  the  Law  Book  provides  that  every 
occupier  must  cut  down  all  Canada  Thistles,  Ox-eye  Daisies, 
Wild  Oats,  Ragweed,  Burdock,  and  all  other  noxious  weeds  to 
which  the  Act  may  be  extended  by  municipal  by-law  so  often  as  to 
prevent  the  ripening  of  seed,  provided,  however,  that  this  does  not 
entail  the  destruction  of  the  growing  grain.  Municipalities  may, 
on  the  application  of  thirty  ratepayers,  suspend  the  operation  of 
the  Act  as  regards  any  waste  or  unoccupied  lands,  but  they  have 
power  to  extend  the  Act  to  include  any  weed  or  weeds.  Penalties 


416  APPENDIX    III 

are  attached  to  neglect  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Act,  and  Inspectors  are  empowered  to  enter  the  premises  of  de- 
faulting occupiers  and  to  cut  down  all  noxious  weeds  except  on 
land  sown  with  grain.  Highway  overseers  must  see  that  the 
roads  under  their  control  are  kept  .free  from  the  weeds.  Any 
person  knowingly  selling  seeds  containing  the  seeds  of  the 
noxious  weeds  referred  to  above  renders  himself  liable  to  a 
fine  of  5  to  20  dollars. 

In  the  North-West  Territories  the  Noxious  Weeds  Ordinance 
of  1903  schedules,  among  others,  the  following  species  as  noxious 
weeds :  Common  Wild  Mustard  (Charlock),  False  Flax,  Shep- 
herd's Purse,  Stinkweed  (Penny  Cress),  Canada  (or  Creeping) 
Thistle,  Ragweed,  and  Wild  Oats.  Occupiers  of  land  must 
destroy  all  these  weeds  on  their  premises,  and  in  addition  on 
the  land  between  the  centre  of  the  highway  and  their  boundary, 
or  in  default.be  liable  to  a  penalty  up  to  TOO  dollars  and  costs. 
An  Inspector  finding  noxious  weeds  in  a  corn  crop  may  order 
the  owner  to  cut  down  or  plough  under  such  crop,  or  any  part 
of  it,  within  a  stated  time,  or  to  fence  off  and  burn  all  straw  and 
screenings  from  such  crop  within  ten  days  of  thrashing.  In- 
spectors have  power  to  act  in  the  case  of  an  occupier's  default. 
No  person  must  sell,  dispose  of,  or  offer  for  sale  any  grain,  grass, 
clover,  or  other  seeds  for  seed  in  which  there  is  seed  of  noxious 
weeds.  No  bran,  shorts,  chopped  or  crushed  grain,  or  cleanings 
containing  seeds  of  noxious  weeds  may  be  removed  from  any 
premises  until  the  germinating  power  of  such  seeds  has  been 
destroyed.  An  exception  is,  however,  made  in  the  case  of 
material  from  elevators  or  warehouses  which  is  destined  for 
sheep  feeding  or  other  purposes  whereby  the  complete  destruc- 
tion of  germinative  capacity  is  secured,  but  the  removal  must 
be  made  under  the  authority  of  Regulations  prescribed  by  the 
Lieutenant-Governor.  No  such  seed  may  be  placed  outside  a 
mill  until  germination  has  been  destroyed.  It  is  further  pro- 
vided that  thrashing-machines  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before 
removal  from  one  place  to  another. 

As  regards  British  Columbia,  the  Noxious  Weeds  Prevention 
Act  of  1888  prescribes  that  any  person  who  imports  and  offers 
for  sale  any  grain,  grass,  clover,  or  other  seed,  or  any  seed 
grain  among  which  there  is  seed  of  Canada  Thistle,  Ox-eye 
Daisy,  Wild  Oats,  Ragweed,  Charlock,  Sorrel,  Burdock,  or  any 


APPENDIX    III  417 

other  foul  seeds,  or  who  shall  knowingly  convey  from  one  farm 
to  another  any  of  these  noxious  seeds  or  grains,  either  in  thrash- 
ing-machines or  fanning  mills,  shall  for  every  such  offence  be 
liable  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  20  and  not  more  than  100 
dollars. 

In  Quebec,  Article  5556  of  the  Civil  Code  ordains  that 
any  person  may,  by  special  notice,  require  any  occupier  of 
any  land  or  common,  not  actually  under  seed,  to  cut  and 
destroy,  between  the  2oth  June  and  the  ist  August,  the  Daisies, 
Wild  Endive,  Chicory,  Celandine,  and  all  other  noxious  weeds 
or  plants  considered  as  such,  growing  on  the  land  or  common. 
A  fine  of  40  cents  per  diem,  and  costs,  is  provided  in  default 
of  complying  with  such  notice.  Any  person  who  scatters,  or 
causes  to  be  scattered,  the  seeds  of  weeds  to  the  prejudice  of 
another  person  shall  incur  a  penalty  of  i  to  8  dollars.  Any. 
person  may,  after  special  notice,  compel  his  neighbour  to  pull 
up  Wild  Mustard,  even  in  a  sown  field,  so  soon  as  it  flowers. 
Default  renders  the  occupier  liable  to  the  above  penalty.  Such 
special  notices  must  be  given  either  in  writing  or  before  two 
witnesses. 

In  Saskatchewan  the  Noxious  Weeds  Ordinance  of  1903 
schedules  nineteen  species  of  plants  as  noxious  weeds,  including 
six  species  of  Mustard  and  three  of  Thistles.  Every  occupier 
of  land  is  required  to  use  all  reasonable  means  in  his  power  to 
destroy  all  noxious  weeds,  and  in  default  is  liable  to  a  penalty 
not  exceeding  100  dollars  and  costs.  Occupiers  must  clear 
the  land  between  the  centre  of  the  road  and  their  boundary. 
Inspectors  are  empowered  on  finding  weeds  in  a  grain  crop  to 
notify  the  owner  to  cut  and  burn,  or  plough  under,  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  crop,  or  to  fence  and  burn  the  straw  from  such 
crop  within  ten  days  of  thrashing.  Railway  lands  and  lands 
of  irrigation  companies  must  also  be  cleared.  No  person  is 
allowed  to  sell  any  grain,  grass,  clover,  or  other  seed  in  which 
there  are  seeds  of  noxious  weeds,  and  such  seeds  must  not  be 
removed  from  any  premises  until  the  power  of  germination  of 
the  noxious  seeds  is  destroyed.  Cleanings  must  not  be,  placed 
outside  a  mill  until  the  power  of  germination  of  any  noxious 
weed  seeds  has  been  destroyed.  Thrashing-machines  must  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  before  removal,  and  this  provision  must  be 
prominently  displayed  on  each  machine. 

2  D 


418  APPENDIX    III 

In  Alberta  the  Noxious  Weeds  Act  of  1907  (as  amended  in 
1908)  schedules  twenty-two  noxious  weeds,  and  makes  their 
destruction  by  all  owners  or  occupiers  of  land  compulsory.  It 
further  provides  that  all  earthworks  owned  by  railway  or  irriga- 
tion companies  must  be  sown  with  White  Clover,  Timothy,  or 
Western  Ryegrass.  Inspectors  have  power  to  order  the  partial 
or  complete  destruction  of  grain  or  hay  crops  containing  noxious 
weeds.  The  sale  of  seed  containing  a  greater  proportion  than 
5  per  1000  of  noxious  weed  seeds  is  prohibited,  and  the  ger- 
minating power  of  all  weed  seeds  must  be  destroyed  before 
cleanings,  &c.,  can  be  removed  from  any  premises.  Thrashing- 
machines  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  removal  to  another 
place,  and  the  thrasher  must  deliver  the  grain  in  such  a  condi- 
tion that  it  contains  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  noxious 
weed  seeds  other  than  Wild  Oats. 

In  Prince  Edward  Island  the  Noxious  Weeds  Act  of  1909 
schedules  seven  weeds,  and  makes  their  destruction  before  the 
seed  ripens  compulsory.  The  provisions  of  the  Act  are  in 
similar  terms  to  those  in  force  in  the  other  Canadian  provinces. 

AUSTRALASIA 

The  Federal  Quarantine  Act,  No.  3  of  1908,  prohibits  the 
importation  into  the  Commonwealth  of  the  seeds  of  no  less 
than  eighty-two  species  of  weeds,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned Burdock,  Charlock,  all  Thistles,  Corn  Marigold,  Dodder, 
Fumitory,  Poppies,  Spurrey,  Ragwort,  Hemlock,  Field  Bindweed, 
Cleavers,  Pepperwort  (L.  Draba  and  L.  campestre),  Black  Bind- 
weed, Sheep's  Sorrel,  and  certain  Docks.  All  seeds  imported 
into  the  Commonwealth  are  required  to  be  "  sound,  clean  and 
new,"  and  therefore  tests  of  their  viability  are  sometimes  made, 
and  they  are  cleared  from  bond  only  when  the  Commonwealth 
Inspectors  are  satisfied  that  seeds  of  the  eighty-two  species  of 
weeds  referred  to  are  not  present. 

In  Victoria^  the  Thistle  Act  of  1890  includes  among  other 
species  Cnicus  lanceolatus,  Onopordon  Acanthium,  and  Cnicus 
arvensis  as  noxious  weeds;  and  the  Act  of  1891  empowers  the 
Governor  in  Council  to  proclaim  any  plant  to  be  a  Thistle  within 
the  meaning  of  the  Act  of  1890.  Occupiers  of  land  are  com- 
pelled to  destroy  all  Thistles  thereon,  and  upon  half  of  any  road 


APPENDIX    III  419 

adjacent  thereto,  within  fourteen  days  after  any  notice  in  writing 
signed  by  any  Justice,  subject  to  a  penalty  of  from  ^5  to  £20. 
After  seven  days'  default  the  Justice  may  order  destruction  of 
the  weeds,  the  cost  to  be  recovered  from  the  occupier.  Duly 
authorised  persons  may  enter  upon  land  to  search  for  Thistles, 
and  on  complaint  being  made  of  the  suspected  existence  of 
Thistles,  and  the  existence  being  confirmed,  the  Justice  may  make 
an  order  for  eradication.  Crown  lands  are  also  subject  to  the 
provisions  of  the  Act. 

New  South  Wales. — By  the  "  Prickly  Pear  Destruction  Act 
of  1901  "  provision  is  made  for  the  compulsory  destruction  of 
the  Prickly  Pear. 

In  New  Zealand,  Act  No.  10  of  1900,  "  To  prevent  the  spread 
of  noxious  weeds  and  to  enforce  the  trimming  of  hedges,"  pro- 
vides that  occupiers  of  land  shall  clear  that  part  between  the 
centre  of  the  road  and  their  boundary  of  all  noxious  weeds. 
No  person  is  allowed  to  sow,  sell,  or  offer  for  sale  any  noxious 
seeds  (except  gorse  seed  for  fodder  by  permission),  or  any 
seed  that  has  not  been  thoroughly  dressed  by  a  machine  or 
other  sufficient  process  to  remove  all  noxious  seeds.  Thrashing- 
machines,  clover-dressers,  and  chaff-cutters  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  immediately  after  use.  Occupiers  must  take  the  neces- 
sary steps  each  year  to  clear  noxious  weeds  from  their  land,  and 
to  clear  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  chain  each  side  of  internal  fences 
and  watercourses.  Powers  of  inspection  and  entry  are  given. 
Some  thirty  plants  are  scheduled  as  noxious  weeds,  and  the  Act 
empowers  the  Governor  to  extend  the  list  on  the  advice  of  the 
Joint  Agricultural,  Pastoral,  and  Stock  Committee. 

In  South  Australia,  Act  No.  26  of  1862  provides  that  the 
occupier  of  land  (including  the  adjacent  half  of  any  road) 
upon  which  Bathurst  Burr  (Xanthium  spmosum),  Scotch 
Thistle,  or  Variegated  Thistle,  shall  be  growing,  shall,  after 
due  notice,  effectually  destroy  such  plants,  or  in  default  be 
liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  £10.  Powers  of  entry  to 
inspect,  and  to  destroy  in  default  of  the  occupier,  are  given. 
Act  409  of  1887  extended  the  above  Act  to  include  the  "  Star 
Thistle "  (Centaurea  calcitrapd},  but  repealed  its  provisions 
as  regards  the  Scotch  and  Variegated  Thistles,  the  former  of 
which  was  found  to  be  eaten  by  cattle  when  in  a  dry  state,  and 
is  therefore  regarded  as  a  fodder  plant  of  some  value  in  dry 


420  APPENDIX    III 

seasons  when  grass  is  scarce.  Further,  powers  were  given  by 
which  any  weed  could  be  proclaimed  a  noxious  weed  which 
must  be  eradicated.  Additional  powers  were  given  by  Act  No. 
517  of  1891.  At  the  present  time  some  thirteen  species  of 
weeds  are  proscribed,  having  been  declared  to  be  "noxious  weeds." 

There  is  in  South  Australia  no  supervision  over  the  sale  of 
seeds,  and  no  guarantee  is  given  by  seedsmen  either  as  regards 
purity  or  germinating  capacity. 

In  Tasmania,  Act  No.  17  of  1883  enforces  the  compulsory 
destruction  of  the  Calfornian  Thistle  and  Bathurst  Burr  before 
blooming,  and  gives  powers  of  entry.  Local  authorities  must 
destroy  all  Thistles  growing  on  roads.  It  is  provided  by  a  later 
Act  (No.  29  of  1887)  that  any  person  removing  from  land,  or 
selling  or  offering  for  sale  any  hay,  straw,  or  grass  seed  or  grain 
containing  Thistle  seed,  shall  be  liable  to  penalties.  It  is  further 
enacted  that  an  annual  return  shall  be  made  to  the  Chief  In- 
spector of  Sheep,  stating  the  estimated  area  of  land  infested 
with  Thistles.  A  later  Act  empowers  the  Governor  to  proclaim 
any  plant  as  a  noxious  weed,  either  generally  or  in  a  particular 
locality,  and  the  Mona  Vale  White  Weed  or  Pepperwort  (Lepidium 
Dmba  L.)  has  been  proclaimed  accordingly,  and  the  different 
municipal  councils — fifty  in  number — take  action  for  its  destruc- 
tion. No  laws  exist  in  the  Island  controlling  the  sale  of  seeds 
mixed  with  weed  seeds. 

In  Western  Australia,  the  Noxious  Weeds  Act  of  1904  provides 
that  such  weeds  as  from  time  to  time  may  be  proclaimed  by 
notice  in  the  Government  Gazette  to  be  noxious  weeds  must  be 
destroyed  by  occupiers  of  land  after  the  Inspector  has  given 
notice.  In  default  the  occupier  is  liable  to  a  penalty  of  £$o. 
Powers  of  entry,  and  to  destroy  in  default  of  the  occupier,  are 
given.  Local  authorities  must  clear  all  lands  under  their  control. 

Queensland. — Dodder  was  proclaimed  a  disease  under  the 
Diseases  in  Plants  Act,  1876. 

SOUTH  AFRICA 

In  Cape  Colony,  Act  40  of  1889  provides  that  occupiers  of 
land  on  which  the  Bathurst  Burr  (Xanthium  spinosum)  exists 
shall,  after  due  notice,  take  steps  to  eradicate  the  weed,  or  in 
default  be  liable  to  a  penalty.  The  Act  empowers  the  Governor 


APPENDIX    III  421 

to  schedule  any  other  weed  as  noxious,  and  to  exempt  any  river 
bed  should  he  see  fit.  Later  Acts  (1905  and  1907)  give  further 
powers  for  the  compulsory  destruction  of  noxious  weeds.  Act 
No.  20  of  1907  empowers  the  Governor  to  make  regulations 
dealing  with  the  furnishing  of  guarantees  as  to  the  purity  and 
germination  of  any  seed  purchased,  for  preventing  the  sale  of 
seeds  not  of  the  quality  guaranteed,  for  preventing  the  sale  of 
killed  or  dyed  seeds,  and  for  providing  for  the  regular  analysis 
of  seeds  intended  for  sale.  It  is  not  incumbent  on  the  vendor 
to  furnish  a  guarantee  of  purity  and  germination,  but  the  absence 
of  such  guarantee  does  not  exempt  him  from  prosecution  in  the 
event  of  killed  or  dyed  seeds  being  found  in  the  seed  sold  by 
him.  Other  clauses  deal  with  prosecutions  under  the  Act,  and 
with  penalties  in  case  of  contravention  of  the  Act  or  regulations 
made  thereunder. 

In  Natal,  Law  No.  38  of  1874  renders  occupiers  of  land 
upon  which  the  Bathurst  Burr  (Xanthium  spinosum]  is  found 
growing  and  bearing  seed  liable  to  a  penalty  of  not  more  than 
-£$.  Powers  of  entry  to  destroy  are  given  under  the  Act.  Act 
No.  20  of  1901  includes  two  other  weeds  in  the  above  Act. 

In  the  Orange  River  Colony,  Chapter  cxxvi.  of  the  Law  Book 
orders  that  every  owner,  occupier,  or  user  of  a  farm  shall  be 
bound  to  exterminate,  bury,  or  burn  the  weed  known  as  Xanthium 
spinosum.  The  Landdrost  has  power  to  do  this  in  default,  and  to 
recover  costs.  Persons  travelling  with  animals  on  which  seed  of 
this  plant  is  found  are  liable  to  prosecution  and  penalties.  The 
Law  also  applies  to  the  Scotch  Thistle,  except  that  on  repre- 
sentations from  twenty-five  landowners  in  a  ward  its  operation 
may  be  withheld, 

In  the  Transvaal,  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  introduced  a 
Bill,  which  received  the  royal  assent  on  3oth  June  1909,  to 
make  better  provision  for  the  eradication  of  noxious  weeds. 
Under  this  term  are  included  Xanthium  spinosum,  and  any 
other  plant  which  the  Governor  may  proclaim  by  notice  in  the 
Gazette,  to  be  a  noxious  weed  either  in  the  whole  Colony  or 
in  specified  parts.  The  Governor  has  power  to  make  regula- 
tions compelling  the  destruction  of  noxious  weeds,  and  pre- 
scribing the  manner  of  destruction,  and  of  empowering  officers 
to  inspect  land  and  to  serve  notices  on  occupiers.  In  default 
of  action  by  the  occupier  the  destruction  may  be  carried  out, 


422  APPENDIX    III 

and  the  cost  thereof  recovered  from  the  occupier.  The  Governor 
may  also  make  regulations  prohibiting  the  introduction  into  the 
Colony  or  the  sale  of  any  plant,  seed,  or  grain  which  is  likely  to 
propagate  or  to  spread  the  seed  of  noxious  weeds.  Failure  to 
comply  with  these  regulations  renders  the  offender  liable  to  a 
fine  not  exceeding  ^50,  or  in  default  of  payment  to  six  months' 
imprisonment  with  or  without  hard  labour.  The  Act  came  into 
operation  on  2nd  July  1909. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

There  are  no  Federal  laws  requiring  the  destruction  of  weeds 
or  the  sale  of  pure  seeds,  but  a  number  of  States  have  passed 
laws  requiring  that  certain  noxious  weeds  shall  not  be  allowed 
to  seed.  Various  penalties  are  provided  in  case  these  laws  are 
violated.  In  several  States  also  there  are  laws  governing  the 
sale  of  seeds  within  the  State. 

The  latest  general  information  available  is  contained  in  a 
Bulletin  (No.  17,  Division  of  Botany)  issued  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  1896.  At  that  date  twenty- 
five  States  and  Territories  had  made  Laws  for  the  suppression 
of  weeds,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  that  twenty-one  of  these 
States  had  proscribed  the  Creeping  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensis 
Hoffm.). 

The  various  laws  are  set  forth  in  extenso  in  the  Bulletin, 
but  they  cannot  be  referred  to  individually  here. 

It  will  be  of  interest,  however,  to  indicate  by  an  example 
what  laws  exist  as  to  the  inspection  of  agricultural  seeds.  In 
the  State  of  Iowa  it  is  provided  by  Law  (effective  July  4,  1907) 
that  no  person  shall  sell  agricultural  seeds  containing  the  seeds 
of  Wild  Mustard  or  Charlock,  Quack  Grass  (Couch),  Canada  (or 
Creeping)  Thistle,  Wild  Oats,  Clover  and  Lucerne  Dodder,1  Field 
Dodder,2  and  Corn  Cockle.  The  sale  of  seeds  containing  not 
more  than  2  per  cent  by  weight  of  the  following  (among  other) 
weed  seeds  is  not  prohibited ;  but  if  more  than  2  per  cent  be 
present  the  approximate  percentage  of  each  of  such  seeds  must 
be  stated :  White  Cockle  (Lychnis  vespertina),  Curled  Dock, 
Sheep's  Sorrel,  certain  Plantains,  Bindweed  (Convolvulus  sepium), 

1  Cuscuta  Epithymum.  z  C.  arvensis. 


APPENDIX    III 


423 


Common  Chickweed.  Sand,  dirt,  chaff,  foreign  substances,  and 
seed  not  capable  of  germinating  are  considered  as  impurities, 
and  when  present  in  quantity  exceeding  the  standards  of  purity 
and  viability  mentioned  below,  the  name  and  approximate  per- 
centage must  be  indicated  : — 


Standard  of  Purity  and  Viability  of  Agricultural  Seeds 


/ 

Per  Cent  of 
Purity. 

Per  Cent  of 
Germinable 
Seeds. 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa)     .... 

96 

80 

Barley  ........ 

98 

90 

Bluegrass,  Canadian  (Poa  compressd)  . 

90 

45 

„           Kentucky  (P.  pratensis)     . 

80 

45 

Brome,  awnless  (Bromus  inermis) 

90 

75 

Clover,  Alsike  (Trifolium  hybridum}  . 

90 

75 

Buckwheat    ....... 

96 

90 

Clover,  crimson  (  /'.  incarnatuiri) 

98 

85 

„       red  (  T.  pratense)      .... 

92 

80 

„       white  (  T.  repens)     .... 

90 

75 

Fescue,  Meadow  (  Festuca  pratensis)   . 

95 

85 

Flax  (Li/iuin  usitatissimum) 

96 

89 

Oats      

98 

90 

Oat-grass,  tall  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum) 

72 

70 

Orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata) 

70 

70 

Rape  (Brassica  rapa)  ..... 

99 

90 

Red  top  (Agrostis  alba)        .... 

90 

70 

Rye       

98 

90 

Ryegrass,  perennial  (Lolium  perenne) 

96 

90 

„          Italian  (L.  italic  um}    . 

95 

80 

Timothy  (Phleum  pratense) 

96 

85 

Wheat  ....                  .         . 

98 

90 

The  United  States  Treasury  Department  periodically  directs 
Customs  Officers  that,  for  specified  periods,  two-ounce  samples  of 
all  importations  of  100  pounds  or  more  of  grass,  clover,  and 
forage-plant  seeds  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  Seed  Laboratory, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington.  The  importation  of 
the  consignment,  and  its  entry  into  commerce,  is  suspended  until 
the  result  of  the  examination  of  the  sample  is  made  known. 


424  APPENDIX    III 


ARGENTINA 

The  importation  of  seeds  is  regulated  by  Law  No.  4084, 
whereby  they  are  subjected  to  inspection,  disinfection,  or  de- 
struction, as  the  case  requires.  The  Law  has  been  amplified 
by  decree  of  August  23,  1902,  and  it  is  stipulated  that  all  live 
vegetable  seeds,  or  part  thereof,  on  importation  into  Argentina, 
are  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Department  of  Agronomy 
of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  and  scrupulously  examined  with 
the  view  of  preventing  the  importation  of  vegetable  or  animal 
plagues.  Seeds  in  large  or  small  quantities  imported  into  Argen- 
tina are  subject  to  inspection  or  analysis  by  the  Department 
of  Agronomy  if  necessary,  and  every  effort  is  made  to  prevent 
the  entry  of  Dodder.  The  importation  of  clover  seeds,  indeed, 
is  prohibited  unless  these  are  certified  as  free  from  Dodder. 


FRANCE 

The  Law  of  June  21,  1898,  provides  that  the  Prefects  of 
Departments  shall  prescribe  such  measures  as  may  be  necessary 
to  arrest  or  prevent  damage  to  agriculture  by  Cryptogams  and 
other  harmful  plants  when  such  damage  assumes,  or  may  assume, 
an  extensive  or  dangerous  character.  Regulations  are  not  made 
by  the  Prefect  without  the  sanction  of  the  General  Council  of 
the  Department,  except  in  the  case  of  urgent  and  temporary 
measures.  He  determines  when  the  measures  should  be  put 
into  execution,  the  localities  to  which  they  shall  apply,  and 
the  special  means  to  be  employed.  The  regulation  is  only 
to  be  carried  into  effect  after  the  approval  of  the  Minister  for 
Agriculture  has  been  received.  The  execution  of  the  regulation 
is  in  the  charge  of  the  Mayors. 

Regulations  of  the  character  outlined  have  been  made  by 
various  Departments. 

The  repression  of  fraud  in  the  sale  of  seeds  is  regulated  by 
the  Frauds  Law  of  August  i,  1905,  and  experiment  stations  have 
been  instituted  to  deal  with  samples  of  seeds  submitted  to  them 
in  conformity  with  that  Law/ 


APPENDIX    III  425 


ITALY 

There  are  no  laws  in  force  in  Italy  with  regard  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds  and  the  supply  of  pure  seeds  of  a  suitable  ger- 
minating capacity. 

BELGIUM 

There  are  no  laws  in  Belgium  with  respect  to  the  provision 
of  pure  seeds  of  good  germinating  capacity,  but  the  Burgomaster 
is  required  by  Art.  50  of  the  "  Code  Rural  "  to  see  that  the 
laws  and  regulations  requiring  the  destruction  of  Thistles  and 
other  noxious  plants  are  duly  executed.  A  Royal  Decree 
(May  2,  1887)  lays  down  rules  for  the  destruction  of  these 
plants,  the  measures  for  the  destruction  of  Thistles  being  pre- 
scribed by  the  provincial  Governors,  and  those  for  other  weeds 
by  the  Minister  for  Agriculture.  The  destruction  of  male  stalks 
of  Hops  is  rendered  compulsory  by  a  Ministerial  Decree  dated 
May  3,  1887. 

GERMANY 

The  Government  of  the  German  Empire  have  passed  no  laws 
in  connection  with  the  seed  trade,  neither  is  the  destruction  of 
weeds  rendered  compulsory  by  any  Imperial  law.  Measures 
are,  however,  taken  in  most  of  the  Federated  States  against  the 
spread  of  certain  weeds,  e.g.  Thistles  (Cnicus  arvensis),  French 
Weed  (Galinsoga  parviflora) ,  Wild  Radish  (Raphanus],  Meadow 
Saffron  (Cokhicurn  autumnale),  Butter-bur  (Petasites  vulgaris), 
Mistletoe  (Viscum  alburn),  Dodder (Cuscuta  Trifolii  or  Epilinum), 
Broom-rape  (Orobanche  minor),  Wild  Mustard  (Sinapis  arvensis), 
Wucherblume  (?  Senecio  vernalis).  These  measures  are  carried 
out  under  police  orders,  and  under  penalty  of  a  fine  or  imprison- 
ment in  default. 

The  examination  of  seeds  in  respect  of  purity  and  germinating 
capacity  is  carried  out  at  experiment  and  control  stations,  which 
are  partly  State  establishments  and  partly  supported  by  the 
Chambers  of  Agriculture. 


426  APPENDIX    III 


HUNGARY 

The  Rural  Police  Act  xii.  of  1894  imposes  a  penalty  up  to 
200  crowns  (^8,  6s.  8d.)  on  any  person  who  offers  for  sale  any 
clover  or  lucerne  seed  which  is  not  absolutely  free  from  Dodder. 
The  result  of  the  passing  of  this  law  is  that  seed  merchants 
prefer  to  sell  seeds  which  have  been  examined  and  bear  the 
official  seal.  This  seal  is  affixed  to  the  package  after  examina- 
tion at  a  Government  Seed-testing  Station,  of  which  there  are 
several  in  the  country.  The  object  of  these  stations  is  to 
exercise  control  over  the  trade  in  seeds  and  other  vegetable 
products,  and  to  protect  the  interests  of  farmers  against  fraud 
and  adulteration ;  to  make  experiments  as  to  germination,  &c. ; 
and  to  identify  weeds  and  weed  seeds  submitted  to  them.  An 
Act  passed  in  1895  imposes  penalties  to  the  extent  of  two 
months'  imprisonment,  or  fines  up  to  600  crowns  (^25),  on 
any  one  who  adulterates  agricultural  products,  or  advertises  or 
sells  material  for  adulterating  purposes,  or  sells  adulterated 
products,  or  who  sells  agricultural  products  under  a  false  de- 
scription. All  seeds  sold  in  quantities  exceeding  10  kilograms 
(22  Ib.)  must  be  sold  under  a  declaration  by  the  seller  as  to 
their  real  name,  variety,  and  origin,  and  as  to  the  percentage  of 
pure  seeds  and  germinating  power  expressed  by  one  definite 
figure.  Various  regulations  govern  the  "  control "  or  testing  of 
seeds  at  the  official  seed-testing  stations. 

SWITZERLAND 

The  Government  have  established  a  system  whereby  firms 
of  seed  merchants,  on  payment  of  an  annual  subscription,  can 
be  registered  as  maisons  controlees.  Such  firms  contract  to 
deliver  to  their  customers  a  gratuitous  certificate  which  gives 
them  the  right  to  have  their  purchases  tested  at  one  of  the 
Government  stations  free  of  charge,  and  they  undertake  to 
indemnify  the  purchaser  should  the  seeds  fall  short  of  their 
description.  The  guarantee  furnished  by  the  "  controlled  firms  " 
includes  the  identity,  purity,  and  germinating  capacity  of  the 
seeds,  together  with  absence  of  adulteration  and  of  the  seeds  of 
noxious  weeds.  With  regard  to  the  latter,  the  firms  especially 
guarantee  a  minimum  proportion  of  authentic  and  pure  seeds 


APPENDIX    III  427 

having  a  minimum  germinating  capacity;  the  absence  of  Dodder 
from  seeds  of  leguminous  forage  plants,  and  of  Flax  Dodder 
(Cuscuta  Epilinum)  from  the  seeds  of  flax;  and  by  special 
arrangement  between  the  parties  the  absence  of  the  seeds  of 
other  noxious  weeds  can  be  guaranteed.  The  proportion  of 
Burnet  (Poterium  Sanguisorba)  in  sainfoin  seed  is  also  guaran- 
teed ;  such  seed  when  sold  as  free  from  Burnet  may  be  returned 
by  the  purchaser  should  it  contain  more  than  10  grains  of 
Burnet  per  kilogram  (2.2  lb.),  while  the  buyer  of  leguminous  seeds 
which  are  found  to  contain  more  than  20  grains  of  Dodder  per 
kilogram  is  entitled  to  an  indemnity  of  5  per  cent  on  the  price. 
Similar  rules  apply  to  seed  found  to  be  adulterated,  or  to  con- 
tain seeds  of  other  noxious  weeds. 


DENMARK 

There  appear  to  be  no  laws  in  Denmark  requiring  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds,  but  annual  grants  are  made  by  the  State  to  agri- 
cultural societies  for  the  purpose  of  awarding  prizes  to  members 
for  weedless  fields.  Further,  the  municipal  administrations  and 
the  railways  are  stated  to  be  careful  that  the  roadsides,  ditches, 
and  railway  areas  are  kept  free  from  weeds. 

SWEDEN 

There  is  no  law  in  Sweden  dealing  with  the  destruction  of 
weeds,  but  a  Royal  Ordinance,  dated  February  5,  1909,  and 
taking  effect  from  June  i,  1909,  provides  for  the  importation 
of  foreign  seeds  under  certain  regulations.  The  chief  point 
is  that  seeds  shall,  before  they  are  allowed  to  be  imported  for 
sale,  be  treated  with  Eosin ;  by  this  means  foreign  seeds  are 
dyed  so  as  to  be  easily  recognisable  and  distinguishable  from 
Swedish  seeds.  (For  further  information  on  this  Ordinance  see 
Jour.  Bd.  Agric.,  April  1909,  p.  53.) 

The  Government  allows  an  annual  sum,  for  the  purpose  of 
seed  inspection  and  for  the  supply  of  pure  seeds,  to  establish- 
ments inaugurated  and  largely  maintained  by  the  local  bodies. 
As  long  ago  as  1876  the  Swedish  Parliament  voted  a  sum  of 
.£550  for  chemical  agricultural  stations  and  offices  for  the 
examination  of  seeds.  At  the  present  time  there  are  some 


428  APPENDIX    III 

twenty-five  such  offices.  In  1887  a  similar  sum  (£$$o)  was 
contributed  for  seed  offices  established  by  local  bodies,  not  more 
than  ^55  to  be  devoted  to  each  office,  and  regulations  were 
drawn  up  for  the  control  of  such  State-aided  stations.  In  the 
last  Budget  seed  offices  were  granted  a  similar  sum,  while  a 
subsidy  of  ^1400  was  granted  to  the  Swedish  Seed  Association. 


NORWAY 

In  Norway  there  appear  to  be  no  laws  requiring  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds. 

NETHERLANDS 

There  are  no  laws  in  the  Netherlands  requiring  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds.  There  is,  however,  a  central  Government  Seed- 
testing  Station  at  Wageningen. 


SERVIA 

Clover  seed  can  only  be  imported  when  it  has  been  shown 
by  expert  examination  to  be  pure.  Seed  grain  is  inspected 
by  market  committees  before  sale. 


PORTUGAL 

No  laws  requiring  the  destruction  of  weeds  or  the  supply  of 
pure  seeds  of  a  suitable  germinating  capacity  are  in  force  in 
Portugal. 

RUSSIA 

There  are  no  laws  regarding  the  destruction  of  weeds.  Seed, 
carefully  cleaned  and  sorted,  is  supplied  to  agriculturists  from 
State  properties,  farms,  and  institutions,  and  also  from  Govern- 
ment and  "  Zemstvo  "  agricultural  stores. 


JAPAN 
No  laws  or  regulations. 


APPENDIX  IV 

THE  VALUE  OF  BIRDS   IN   DESTROYING 
WEED  SEEDS 

"  You  call  them  thieves  and  pillagers  ;  but  know 

They  are  the  winged  wardens  of  your  farms, 
Who  from  the  cornfields  drive  the  insidious  foe, 
And  from  your  harvest  keep  a  hundred  harms." 

— LONGFELLOW. 

THE  part  played  in  Nature's  economy  by  "  the  fowls  of  the  air  " 
is  of  a  manifold  character,  although  as  regards  their  effect  on  the 
agriculture  of  the  country  less  is  known  than  may  be  considered 
desirable.  In  general  there  are,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
farmer  and  gardener,  birds  which  are  sometimes  classed  as  wholly 
harmful,  others  as  distinctly  useful,  and  yet  others  which  lie 
between  these  two  extremes.  In  one  way  or  another,  however, 
the  vast  majority  of  birds  may  be  considered  useful,  but  their 
work  in  destroying  weed  seeds  is  the  only  point  which  can  be 
touched  on  here. 

We  have  already  briefly  noted  the  fact  (see  p.  20)  that  birds 
may  be  agencies  in  the  distribution  of  weed  seeds,  but  the  harm 
done  in  this  way  must  be  inconsiderable  when  compared  with 
the  useful  work  done  by  birds  which  largely  subsist  on  the  seeds 
of  wild  plants.  As  an  example  of  the  aid  farmers  receive  from 
birds  in  this  connection,  it  will  be  of  interest  and  value  to  mention 
briefly  several  birds  which  eat  large  quantities  of  weed  seeds. 

The  Chaffinch  (Fringilla  ccelebs  L.)  devours  innumerable 
seeds  of  weeds,  such  as  Coltsfoot,  Groundsel,  Chickweed,  Char- 
lock, Wild  Radish,  Knotweed,  Buttercup.  Howard  Saunders 
says,  "  Both  young  and  old  feed  largely  on  insects  and  the  seeds 
of  weeds,  so  that  in  spite  of  pilfering  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and 
newly-sown  seeds,  the  Chaffinch  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
gardener's  best  friends." 

429 


430  APPENDIX    IV 

The  Greenfinch  (Ligurinus  chloris  L.)  is  another  seed- 
eater,  taking  large  quantities  of  the  seeds  of  Charlock,  Dandelion, 
Dock,  Corn  Mangold,  Plantain,  Goose  Grass,  Corn  Crowfoot, 
Knotweed. 

The  Bullfinch  (Pyrrhula  europcea  Viel.)  also  takes  the 
seeds  of  many  weeds — Self-heal,  Mouse-ear  Hawkweed,  Dock, 
Charlock,  Great  Stinging  Nettle,  Groundsel,  Plantain,  Meadow- 
sweet, Spear  Thistle,  Chickweed,  Ragwort,  Sow  Thistle.  Of 
26  specimens  examined  by  Newstead,  "  1 1  contained  seeds  of 
Sycamore;  3,  Hawthorn  kernels  ;  i,  seeds  of  Elder;  9,  seeds  of 
Blackberry;  2,  seeds  of  Self-heal;  n,  seeds  of  Dock;  3,  seeds 
of  Charlock;  3,  seeds  of  Nettle;  2,  Hawkweed;  i,  fruit  buds." 
The  same  authority  states  that  during  the  months  of  July,  August, 
and  September  this  bird  subsists  very  largely  on  the  seeds  of 
Self-heal,  and  he  has  watched  it  for  hours  together  feeding 
exclusively  upon  the  seeds  of  this  noxious  weed. 

The  Linnet  (Linota  cannabina  L.)  is  a  seed-eating  bird,  and 
feeds  freely  on  the  seeds  of  Charlock  and  other  weeds.  It  is 
known  to  eat  the  seeds  of  Self-heal,  Dandelion,  Dock,  and  Mouse- 
ear  Hawkweed.  Newstead  records  an  enormous  flock  of  Linnets 
feeding  on  the  seeds  of  Charlock  which  had  practically  over- 
grown a  field  of  potatoes. 

The  Goldfinch  (Carduelis  elegans  Stephens)  in  the  mature 
state  feeds  principally  on  seeds — Thistle,  Knapweed,  Groundsel, 
Dock,  and  others. 

The  Skylark  (Alauda  arvensis  L.)  eats  the  seeds  of  Annual 
Meadow  Grass,  Lychnis  sp.,  Polygonum  sp.,  Chickweed,  Plan- 
tain, Charlock,  and  other  weeds. 

The  House  Sparrow  (Passer  domesticus  L.)  does  good 
during  several  months  of  the  year  by  eating  weed  seeds,  as  those 
of  Charlock,  Chickweed,  Plantain,  Buttercup,  Knotgrass,  Field 
Bindweed,  Goosefoot,  Dandelion,  Dock. 

The  Yellow- Hammer  (Emberiza  citrimlla  L.)  and  other 
buntings  appear  to  consume  many  weed  seeds,  including  Knot- 
grass, Plantain,  Groundsel,  Chickweed,  Thistle,  Dock,  and 
others. 

The  Wood  Pigeon  (Columba  palumbus  L.)  does  an  im- 
mense amount  of  service  by  eating  great  quantities  of  weed 
seeds  —  Charlock,  Shepherd's  Purse,  Corn  Crowfoot,  Docks, 
Goose  Grass,  Plantain,  Knotgrass,  Ragweed,  Hemlock,  and 


APPENDIX    IV  431 

others.     It  also  eats  the  succulent  roots  of  Silver-weed  (see  p. 
79)  and  other  weeds. 

These  few  birds  are  merely  quoted  as  examples  of  those 
which  devour  large  quantities  of  weed  seeds.  The  Pheasant, 
Partridge,  Corn  Crake,  Siskin,  Red-poll,  and  Brambling  or 
Mountain  Finch,  also  do  much  good  in  this  way.  (See  also 
"  The  Food  of  some  British  Birds,"  R.  Newstead,  Jour.  Bd. 
Agric.,  Supplement  to  vol.  xv.,  1908-9;  The  Farmer  and  the 
Birds,  Edith  Carrington,  1898;  Manual  of  British  Birds, 
Howard  Saunders,  1899;  anc^  other  books  on  birds.) 


APPENDIX   V 

THE  following  is  a  list  of  British  seedsmen  who  submit  samples 
to  the  Zurich  Seed  Control  Station,  and  have  made  special 
arrangements  for  the  testing  of  their  seeds : — 

George  G.  Bullmore,  Newquay,  Cornwall. 

T.  and  R.  Carlyle,  Waterbeck,  Ecclefechan. 

Samuel  MacCausland,  Belfast 

McClinton  &  Co.,  Belfast. 

Alex.  Cross  &  Sons,  Glasgow. 

Dickson  &  Robinson,  Manchester. 

John  Donaldson  &  Co.,  Edinburgh. 

William  Dods  &  Son,  Haddington. 

Durant  &  Sons,  North-Tawton,  Devon. 

Robert  Edgar  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Edinburgh. 

Farmer's  Supply  Association  of  Scotland,  Leith. 

Gordon  Woodroffe  &  Co.,  London. 

James  Hunter,  Chester. 

Peter  Lawson  &  Son,  Edinburgh. 

W.  H.  and  H.  Le  May,  London. 

John  Milne  &  Sons,  Montrose. 

John  Picard  &  Co.,  London. 

William  Power  &  Co.,  Waterford. 

Raynbird  &  Co.,  Basingstoke. 

Roughead  &  Park,  Ltd.,  Haddington. 

Fred.  Smith  &  Co.,  Woodbridge,  Suffolk. 

Tozer,  Kemsley  &  Fisher,  London. 

William  Watt,  Cupar,  Fife. 

Edward  Webb  &  Sons,  Wordsley,  Stourbridge. 

This    list    is  given  solely  as    showing    that    many  seedsmen 
recognise  the  great  importance  of  seed  testing  in  assisting  their 

432 


APPENDIX    V  433 

endeavours  to  supply  good,  pure  seed.  Many  of  the  great 
merchants  are  not  on  this  list,  for  the  reason  that  their  seeds 
are  tested  elsewhere,  or  they  are  examined  by  trained  men  on 
the  premises.  The  fact  that  this  list  is  printed  here  is  not  to  be 
taken  to  mean  that  the  firms  named  are  recommended  before 
others,  whose  seeds  may  be  equally  good  and  have  been  tested 
and  approved  by  competent  authorities  at  other  stations. 


2    E 


INDEX 


Achillea  Millefolitim,  8,  139. 140,  141, 

142,  185,  395 
Acidia  heraclei,  1 1 
Aconite,  5 
Aconitine,  278 

Acomtum  Napelhis,  155,  276,  385 
Acrid  Buttercup,  39,  152,  279,  385 
Adder's  Tongue,  408 
Adulteration  of  Seeds  Acts  (1869  and 

1878),  353,  356,  409 
^Kgopodium  Podagraria,  167,  391 
sEthusa  Cynapiiim,  24,  83,  298,  392 
Agricultural    seeds,    distribute   weed 

seeds,  20,  353-362 

—  value  of,  reduced  by  weed  seeds, 
1 3' 353 -368 

Agrimonia  Eiipatoria,  165,  391 
Agrimony,  165 

Agrostemma  Githago,  24,  69,  283,  388 
Agrostis^.,  128,  139,  149,  151,233 

—  alba,  217,  406 
canina,  12,  2 1 8,  406 

—  Spica-venli  370 

stolonifera,  39,   128,   142,   218, 

406 

—  vulgaris,  128,  143,  218,  406 
Aira  azspitosa,  39,  220,  406 
caryophyllea,  370 

Jlexuosa,  151,  218,  370,  406 

Ajtiga  reptans,  141,  200,  400 
Alchemiila  arvensis,  80,  390 

vulgaris,  165,  390 

Alga,  323,  343 
Alisma  Plantago,  335,  403 
Alismacecz,  335,  403 
All-heal,  329,  392 
Alliaria  officinalis,  13 
A  Ilium  sp.,  13 

—  oleracenm,  126,  404 
ursinum,  211,  404 

vineale,  44,  125,  209,  404 

Alopecurtis  agrestis,  126,  233,  406 


Alopecurus  genicnlattis,  216,  406 

—  pratensis,  39,  217 
Amenfaceie,  313,  403 
American  Pond  weed,  403 

—  Weeder,  34,  55 
Ammonium  salts  on  grass,  145,  147 
Anacharis  Alsinastrttm,  332 
Anagallis  arvensis,  6,  113,  369,  400 
Analyses  of  weeds,  7 

Anchitsa  arvensis,  106,  397 
Anemone  nemorosa,  280,  384 

—  Pulsatilla,  384 

Animals  distribute  weed  seeds,  20 
Annual  Knawel,  75,  233,  388 

Meadow  Grass,  27,  129,  407 

—  Mercury,  309,  402 

Sow  Thistle,  27,  99,  396 

Annuals,  2,  18,  31,  35 
Anthemis,  13,  47 

arvensis,  90,  369,  370,  395 

Cotula,  90,  395 

Anthriscus  sylvestris,  1 68,  369,  370, 

392 

vulgarts,  39,  168,  392 

Aphis  rumicis,  10,  II 
Apium  immdatum,  328,  392 

nodiflorum,  328,  392 

Araliacett,  393 

Arctium  Lappa,  24,  173,  394 

Arenaria  serpyllifolia,  71,  369,  370, 

388 

—  tenuifolia,  71,  388 
Arnut,  391 
Aroidete,  317,  405 
Arrhenatherum  avenaceum,  var.  bul- 

bosum,  131,  233,  407 
Arrow-head,  336,  403 
Arsenical  sheep-dip  as  weed  killer.  350 
Arsenite  of  soda,  spraying  with,  40, 

44,  262 

Arum  mactdatum,  173,  405 
Ascowycetes,  319 


435 


436  INDEX 


Atriplex  hastata^  122,  401 

—  patula,  122,  369,  401 
Atropa  Belladonna,  300,  398 
Atropine,  300,  306 
Autumn  Crocus,  314,  404 
Autumnal  Hawkbit,  140,  191,  396 
Avena  fatua,  128,  407 

flavescens,  39 

pratensis,  407 

pubescens,  39,  407 

—  strigosa,  129 
Azalea  pontica,  299 
Azaleas,  299,  396 

BAGGING-HOOK,  38 
Bar  bar ea  vulgaris,  369 
Barberry,  10,  12,  155,  385 
Barley,  blindness  of,  12 

—  grass,  meadow,  39,  142,  223,  234, 
407 

—  wild,  12,  40 

Bartsia  Odontites,  199,  272,  399 

—  Red,  199,  272,  399 

—  viscid,  199,  272,  399 
viscosa,  199,  272,  399 

-  Yellow,  199,  272,  399 
Beaked   Parsley,   Common,  39,  147, 

168,  392 

Bean  Aphis,  10,  1 1 
Bearbine,  103,  397 
Bear's  Foot,  385 
Bedstraw,  Corn,  85,  393 

-  Water,  393 

-  Yellow,  172,  393 

Bellis  perennis,  139,  140,  185,  395 
Bent  Grass,  128,  139,  142,  151 

-  Brown,  218,  406 

—  Common,  145 

Creeping,  218 

Fine,  218,  406 

-  Marsh,  39,  217,  406 
Bcrberidace&i  155,  385 
Berberis  vulgaris,  I55>  3^5 
Beta  maritima,  4 
Biennials,  18 

Bindweed,  4,  6,  13,  24,  34,' 47,  233 

Black,  n,  14,  47,  116,  401 

Field,  102,  397 

—  Great,  103 

-  Small,  28,  397 
Bishop's  Weed,  391 

Birds  as  distributors  of  weed  seeds,  20 

—  value  of,  as  destroyers  of  weed 
seeds,  429 


Bitter  Candytuft,  67,  387 

Cress,  156,  386 

Flax,  158,  388 

Bitter-sweet,  302,  398 
Black  Knapweed,  145,  146 

—  Nightshade,  108,  304,  398 
Blackberry,  164,  390 
Blackhead,  175 

Bladder  Campion,  28,  69,  156,  387 

Blue  Lupin,  290 

Bluestone,  350 

Boiling  water,  to  kill  weeds  on  paths, 

350 

Boraginea,  106,  196,  299,  397 
Bowling  greens,  weeds  in,  345 
Box,  311,  402 

Bracken,  151,  226,  233,  408 
Brake  Fern,  226,  408 
Bramble,  164,  390 
Brandy-bottle,  386 
Brassica  campestris,  386 

—  oleracea,  4 
Rapa,  386 

Bristle-pointed  Oat,  129 
Briza  media,  39,  222,  407 
Broad  Clover,  39 
Broad-leaved  Dock,  201,  401 

-  Plantain,  39,  108,  198,  398 
Brome  Grass,  Barren,  223 

-  Field,  131 

-  Rye- like,  130,  407 

—  Smooth,  131 

-  Soft,  147,  223,  233,  407 

—  Sterile,  223,  407 
Bromus  arvensis,  131 

—  mollis,  223,  407 
racemosus,  131 

—  secalinus,  \  30,  370,  407 

—  sterilis,  223,  407 
Brooklime,  323,  330,  399 
Broom,  161,  234,  389 
Broom-rape,  13,  24,  233,  263,  264 

—  Larger,  264 

—  Lesser,  264,  399 
Brushing  of  hedges  and  ditches,  33 
Bryonia  dioica,  13,  167,  293,  391 
Bryonin,  294 

Bryony,  13,  167,293,  391 
Buckthorn,  Common,  288,  389 
Buckwheat,  Climbing,  116,  401 
"Buco"  hand  cultivator,  38 
Bugle,  141,  200,  400 
Bugloss,  106,  397 
Viper's,  106,  397 


INDEX 


437 


Building  plots,  weeds  seeding  in,  23 

Bulbous  Oat-grass,  131 

Bulrush,  334,  338,  405 

"  Bull  faces"  or  "  Bull  pates,"  220 

Bunium  flexuosum,  \  40 

Burdock,  II,  24,  173,  394 

Burnet,  28,  145,  146 

Greater,  165,  391 

Salad,  165,  391 

Bur-reed,  333,  406 
Burrs,  233 

Butter  tainted  by  weeds,  209 
Butter-bur,  28,  182,  394 
Buttercup,  II,  27,  28,  139,  141,  146, 
152,  233,  278 

Acrid,  39,  152,  279,  385 

Bulbous,  39,  140,  152,  279,  385 

Celery-leaved,  279 

Corn,  52,  233,  385 

Creeping,  50,  140,  385 

Field,  52,  385 

Upright,  140 

Buxin,  31 1 

Buxus  sempervirens,  311,  402 

CABBAGE  ROOT  FLY,  1 1 
Cake  feeding  on  grass  land,  148,  150 
Calamintha  Acinos,  369 
Callitriche  autumnalis,  327 

verna,  326,  393 

Callunavulgaris,  151,  195,  396 
Caltha palustris,  323,  325,  385 
Camelina  saliva,  63,  386 
Campanulacea,  195,  396 
Campion,  Bladder,  28,  69,  156 
Evening,  69,  387 

Red,  69,  156,  387 

White,  26,  69,  156,  387 

Canadian  Pondweed,  332,  403 
Candytuft,  Bitter,  67,  387 
Cannabacea,  208,  403 
Caper  Spurge,  124,  309,  402 
Capitate  Mint,  330,  400 

Capsella  Btirsa-Pastoris,  10,  24,  27, 

63,  369,  370,  387 
Carbolic  acid,  use  of,  40,  44,    126, 

209,  346,  350 

Cardamiite  pratensis,  140,  156,  386 
Carduus  sp.,  140 
Carex,  12,  140,  323,  369,  370 
ampullacea,  339 

—  paludosa,  339,  405 

—  pr&cox,  214,  405 
riparia,  339 


Carex  vesicaria,  339 

vulgaris,  214,  405 

Carnation  Grasses,  214 
Caryophyllacea,  69, 151,1 56, 283,  387 
Castor  Oil  Plant,  311 
Catch  crops,  35 
Catch-weed,  83 
Cat's-ear,  191,  234,  395 
Cat's-tail,  228,  408 
Celandine,  Greater,  282,  385 

Lesser,  152,  280,  385 

Celastracece,  288,  389 
Celery  Fly,  1 1 

Centaurea  Cyanus,  5,  8,  47,  86,  369, 
370,  394 

nigra,  40,  142,  175,  394 

Scabiosa,  177,  394 

Cerastium  arvense,  69,  388 

triviale,    69,    139,    140,    156, 

369,  388 

Ceratophyllacea,  331,  402 
Ceratophyllum  denier  sum,  331,  402 
Cereals,  effect  of  spraying  on,  47 
Ceutorhynchus  sukicollis,  1 1 
Chamomile,  13 

Corn,  90,  395 

Stinking,  90 

-  Wild,  90,  395 
Chara,  323,  340,  408 
Characea,  340,  408 

Charlock,  10,  n,  24,  26,  27,40,46, 
58,  233,  283,  386 

jointed,  62 

losses  due  to,  59 

spraying,  40,  46,  61 

vitality  of,  59 

-  White,  7,  62 
Chelidonine,  283 
Chelidoniiim  majus,  282,  385 
Chenopodiacece,  119,  401 
Chenopodium  album,  1 1,  24,  27,  119, 

3^9,  370,  401 
—  sp.  47 

Cherry  Laurel,  292,  390 
Chervil,  168 
Chickweed,  24,  27,  28,  70,  233,  388 

Narrow-leaved   Mouse-ear,  69, 

139,  140,  156,  388 

Chicory,  4,  28 

-  Wild,  99,  395 
Christmas  Rose,  281 
Chrysanthemum  LcucanthctHUtn,  24, 

40,  1 86,  369,  370,  395 
rust,  1 2 


438  INDEX 


Chrysanthemum  segetumy  6,  24,  92» 

151,  369,  370,  395 
Cichorium  Intybus,  4,  99,  359,  369, 

395 

Ctcuta  vtrosa,  296,  391 
Claviceps purpurea,  10,  12,319,  408 
Cleavers,  13,   24,   28,  83,     172,  233, 

393 

Clematis  Vitalba,  13,  151,  384 
Gliders,  83 

Climbing  Buckwheat,  116,401 
Clithe,  83 
Cliver,  83,  393 
Clover,  27,  50 

Broad,  39 

Dutch,  39 

-  Red,  48 

Clover  Dodder,  258,  397 
Club-rush,  334,  338,  406 
Cnicus  sp.,  n,  i  77 
acaulis,  178,  394 

—  arvensts,  27,  47,  86,  180,  369, 

370,  394 

lanceolatiiS)  178,  394 

palustris,  178,  394 

"Cocks  and  Hens,"  198 

Cock's-comb,  268,  399 

Cocksfoot,  39 

Codlins  and  Cream,  166,  391 

Colchicine,  316 

Colchicum  autumnale,  314,  404 

Colorado  Beetle,  1 1 

Coltsfoot,  24,  28,  87,  185,  233,  394 

Common  Agrimony,  391 

-  Beaked  Parsley,  39,  392 

-  Bent,  145 

—  Bugle,  200,  400 

-  Centaury,  195,  397 

—  Comfrey,  196,  397 

—  Cotton  Grass,  213,  405 
Cow- wheat,  399 

—  Forget-me-not,  397 

—  Fumitory,  57,  386 

Heather,  195,  396 

Lady's  Mantle,  165,  390 

Mallow,  388 

-  Poppies,  281,  385 

—  Rushes,  211,  405 
Sedge,  405 

Sorrel,  139.  140,  206,  401 

—  Speedwell,  199   399 
Composite,  86,  151,  173,  329,  394 
Compost  of  weeds,  3 
Corn/era,  312,  403 


Conine,  295 

Conium  maculatum,  294,  391 

Conopodium    denudatum,    167,    234, 

391 

Convallana  majahs,  317,  404 
Convolvulacecz,  102,  256,  397 
Convolvulus  sp.,  47 
arvensis,  6,    13,  24,    102,    116, 

397 

septtim,  6,  13,  103,  397 

Copper   sulphate,    spraying,   40,   45, 

55.  61,  343,  350 
Corn  Bedstraw,  85,  393 
Blue-bottle,  5,  86,  394 

—  Buttercup,  52,  233 

Chamomile,  90,  395 

Cockle,    14,    24,   47,    69,   283, 

388 

—  crops  suffering  from  weeds,  9 
Feverfew,  395 

Cromwell,  107,  397 

-  Marigold,   6,   24,   28,   41,  92, 
151.  233,  234,  395 

Mint,  1 10,  400 

Pansy,  68,  387 

Rose,  385 

—  Speedwell,  109,  399 
Spurrey,  388 

-  Wound  wort,  112,  400 
Cornflowers,  5,8,  n,  28,  47,  86,  394 
Cotton  Grass,  213,  405 

—  Thistle,  ii,  179,  394 

Couch,  4,  5,  34,  47»  *32,  218,  233, 
234,  319,  407 
Black,  218,  406 


Onion,  407 

Cow  Parsley,  234 

Parsnip,  169,  392 

Cowbane,  296,  391 
Cowslips,  28,  201,  234,  400 
Cow-wheat,  272,  399 
Crane's-bill,  76 

—  Cut-leaved,  77,  159,  389 

Dove's-foot,  77,  159,  389 

Meadow,  159,  389 

Crepis  taraxacifolia,  396 

virens,  363,  370 

Creeping  Buttercup,  50,  385 

—  Cinquefoil,  79,  164,  390 
rootstocks  spread  weeds,  21 

-  Soft  Grass,  222,  407 
Thistle,  4,  27,  34,  41,  47,  86, 

179,  394 
Cricket  pitches,  weeds  in,  345 


INDEX 


439 


Crocus,  Autumn,  314,  404 

Meadow,  314 

Crops  robbed  by  weeds  of  air,  food, 
heat,  light,  and  moisture,  7 

rotation  of,  32 

Cross-leaved  Heath,  195,  396 
Crow  Garlic,  125,  209,  404 
Crowfoot,  Bulbous,  140,  152 

Celery-leaved,  155,  325,  384 

Creeping,  140,  152   . 

Tall,  279 

Upright,  152 

Water,  323,  324,  384,  385 

Crow's  Needles,  81 

Crudferce,  IO,  57,  151,  156,  283,  386 
Cuckoo  Flower,  140,  156,  386 

Pint,  317,  405 

Cucurbitace^e,  167,  293,  391 
Cudweed,  Marsh,  96,  187,  395 
Cultivation,  autumn,  30 

hindered  by  weeds,  IO 

—  prevents  weeds,  29 

surface,  34 

thorough,  33 

Cupressus,  313,  403 

macrocarpa,  3  1 3 

nootkatensis,  313 

poisoning,  313 

Cuscuta  sp.,  256,  397 

chilensis,  369 

Epilinum,  259,  397 

Rpithyniuin,  259 

—  europcea,  259,  369 

Gronovii,  259 

minor,  259 

racemosa,  369 

—  Trifolii,  258,  359,  369,  397 
Cynapine,  299 

Cynoglossum  officinale,  299.  397 
Cynosurus  cristatus,  39 
Cyperacea,  213,  338,  405 
Cypress,  313,  403 
Cystopzis  candidus,  1 2,  64 
Cytisin,  292 

Cytisus  Laburnum,  292,  389 
scoparius,  161,  389 

Dactylis  glomerata,  39 

Daisy,  ii;  43,  139,  140,  233,  346 

Common,  185,  395 

Dog,  1 86 

•  Grubbers,  38 

-  Horse,  395 
Ox-eye,  24,  28,  40, 186,  234,  395 


Dandelion,  5,  II,  24,  28,  43,  47,  140, 

193,  233,  349?  396 
Daphne  Laureola,  308,  401 

Mezereum,  308,  401 

Darnel,  319.  407 

Datura  Stramonium,  305  5  39& 

Daucus   Carota,  24,    170,    359,   369, 

392 

Day  Nettle,  400 
Deadly  Nightshade,  5,  300,  398 
Delphine,  280 
Delphinium  Ajacis,  280,  385 

staphisagria,  280 

Desmids,  323,  343 
Destruction  of  weeds,  29 
Devil's  Bit,  173,  393 

Paint-brush,  194 

Diamond-back  Moth,  IO,  n 

Diatoms,  323 

Digitalin,  308 

Digitalis  purptirea,  151,  307,  398 

Dipsacece,  172,  393 

Dtpsactis  Fullonum,  172 

sylvestris,  172,  393 

Distribution  of  weeds,  18 
Distributors  of  weed  seeds  : — 

Agricultural  seeds,  20 

Animals,  20 

Birds,  20 

Building  plots,  23 

Creeping  rootstocks,  2 1 

Dung-heap,  21 

Floods,  19 

Hay-loft  sweepings,  21 

Mice,  20 

Rain,  19 

Rivers,  19 

Screenings,  33 

Squirrels,  20- 

Streams,  19 

Waste  corners,  22 

Wind,  19 
Dock,  10.  11,  12,  27,  32,  43,  47,  118, 

201,233,349 

Bloody-veined,  401 

Common  or  Broad-leaved,  201, 

401 

—  Curled,  140,  201,  401 
—  Great  Water,  401 

Sour,  139,  140 

Dodder,  13, 14,  24,  40,  233,  256,  359, 

362 

Clover,  258,  397 

Flax,  259,  397 


440  INDEX 


Dodder,  Lesser,  259 
Dog  Daisy,  186 

—  Rose,  166,  391 
Dog's  Mercury,  309,  402 
Dogstail,  39 

Doryphora  decemlineata,  1 1 
Downy  Oat-grass,  39,  145,  407 
Draining,  39,  151 

Drains  stopped  by  weeds,  14 

Drives,  weeds  in,  349 

Duckweed,  334,  405 

Dung-heap  as  distributor  of  weeds,  21 

Dutch  Clover,  39 

Dwale,  300,  398 

Dwarf  Spurge,  124,  402 

—  Thistle,  394 

Dyer's    Green-weed,    28,    159,    234, 
389 

EARTH-NUT,  140,  167,  391 
Echium  vulgare,  106,  369,  397 
Eel  worms,  10 
Elodea,  327 

—  canadensis,  332>  4O3 
Ephemerals,  18 

E pick  Ice  typhina,  1 2 
Epilobitfm  hirsutum,  166,  391 

parviflorwn,  1 66,  39  * 

EqtdsetacecB,  136,  228,  340,  408 
Equisetum  arvense,  136,  228,  408 

—  limosuni)  323,  340,  408 

—  palustre^  229 

Ergot  of  rye,  10,  12,  319,  408 
Erica  sp.,  151 

Tetralix,  195,  396 

Eric  ace  CB,  195,  299,  396 
Eriophorum  angusftfoliuni,  213,  405 

—  vaginatum,  213,  405 
Erythrcca  Centaurium,  195,  397 
Euonymin,  288 

Euonymus  eitropceus,  288,  389 
Eupatorium  cannabinum,  329,  394 
Euphorbia  sp.,  47 

exigua,  124,  402 

Helioscopid)  124,  402 

—  Lathyris,  1 24,  309,  402 
Oil  of,  309,  311 

Pephts,  124,  402 

EuphorbiacecB,  123,  309,  402 
Euphorbin,  31 1 
Euphrasia  Odontites,  272 

-  officinalis,   13,   271,   369,    370, 

399. 
Experiments  on  grass,  144,  149 


Experiments  on  pastures,  141 
Eyebright,  13,  271,  399 

FAGGING-HOOK,  38 

Fairy  Rings,  231,  345,  347,  408 

Fallowing  to  destroy  weeds,  34 

False  Oat-grass,  147 

Farmyard  manure  on  grass  land,  148, 

ISO 
Fat  Hen,  10,  n,  12,  24,  119,  233, 

401 

"  Fern,"  151,  226 
Fertilisers  and   Feeding   Stuffs  Act, 

1893.  354 

Festuca  my  urns,  37° 
Field  Bindweed,  102,  397 

—  Brome  Grass,  131 

-  Buttercup,  52,  385 

Forget-me-not,  107,  397 

Garlic,  126,  404 

Gentian,  196,  397 

Lady's  Mantle,  80,  390 

Madder,  85,  393 

—  Meadow  Grass,  39 

Mint,  110,400 

Pepperwort,  65,  387 

-  Scabious,  172,  177,  393,  394 

—  Wood -rush,  140 
Figwort,  Knotted,  329,  399 
— ^-  Marsh,  329,  398 
Filices,  226,  408 
Finger-and-toe,  10,  n 
Fiorin,  142,  217,  406 

Fishing,  influence  of  weeds  on,  341 

Flag  Iris,  333 

Flea  Beetles.  10 

Floating  Foxtail,  216,  406 

Floods  as  distributors  of  weed  seeds, 

19 

—  caused  by  water  weeds,  322 
Foal's-foot,  87,  394 

Fool's  Parsley,  24,  83,  298,  392 
Forget-me-not,  397 

--  Field,  107,  397 
Foxglove,  5,  151,  307,  39^ 
Foxtail,  Floating,  216,  406 

—  Slender  or  Field,  126,  406 
Frit  Fly,  11 

Frost  destroys  weeds,  34 
Fruit-trees,  moss  on,  351 
Fumaria,  229,  408 
F^lmaria  officinalis,  57,  369,  386 
Ftunariacece,  57»  3^6 
Fumitory,  47,  233 


INDEX 


44 


Fumitory,  Common,  57,  3^6 
Fungi,  231,  319,  408 

harboured  by  weeds,  lo 

Furze,  161,  389 

Galeopsis  Tetrahit,  112,  400 

versicolor,  1 12 

Galittm  Aparine,  24,  83,  369,   370, 

393 

pahistre,  393 

tricorne,  85,  393 

-  verum,  172,  393 
Garden  Nightshade,  108 
Garlic,  Broad -leaved,  211,  404 

Crow,  125,  209,  404 

Field,  126,  404 

•  sp.,  13 

Garlic  Mustard,  TO,  13,  58,  386 
Genista  tinctoria,  159,  389 
Gentiana  campestris,  196,  397 
Gentianaceez,  195?  397 
Geraniacece,  76,  159,  389 
Geranium,  76 

—  dissectum,  77,  1 59,  369,  37O,  389 
molle,  77,  :59.  369,  389 

—  pratense,  159,  389 

—  piissilum,  369,  370 

Robertianum,  78,  159,  389 

Germander  Speedwell,  140,  199,  399 

Geum  urbanum,  164,  390 

Ghost  Moth,  1 1 

Githagin,  287 

Gnaphalium    tiliginosum,    96,     187, 

395 

Goat's-beard,  191,  395 
Goat- weed,  167 
Gold  of  Pleasure,  63,  386 
Gooseberry-leaf  Cluster-cups,  12 
Goosefoot,   10,    u,   12,  24,  27,   28, 

119,  401 
Goose  Grass,  78,  83,  172,  390,  393 

Tongue,  140 

Gorse,  161,  234,  389 
Goutweed,  167,  391 
GraminecB,  126,  214,  319,  339,  406 
Grass  land,  ammonium  salts  on,  145 

—  cake  feeding  on,  148 

composition  of  herbage,  138 

drainage  of,  151 

—  experiments  on,  139,  149 

—  farming  and  manures  on,   144, 
148 

—  lime  on  old,  149 

—  nitrate  of  soda  on,  145 


Grass  land,  phosphates  on,  143 
Great  Burnet,  165,  391 

—  Celandine,  282 

—  Knapweed,  177 

—  Ragweed,  40 

Water-dock,  331,  401 

Willow  Herb,  166,  391 

Green  Hellebore,  280,  385 

manure,  weeds  as,  2 

manuring,  36 

Grey  Millet,  107,  397 
Grip-grass,  83 

Groundsel,  5,  12,  24,  27,  28,  47,96, 
233,  349,  395 

HAIR  GRASS,  Tufted,  143,  220,  406 

Wavy,  151,  218,  406 

Halberd-leaved  Orache,  122,  401 

Haloragea,  326,  393 

Haltica  sp.,  10 

Hand-power  machine,  341 

Hardback,  175 

Hardheads,  175,  394 

Hare's-tail  Cotton  Grass,  213,  405 

Hariff,  83,  393 

Harrowing,  33 

Harvesting  hampered  by  weeds,  1 5 

Hassock  Grass,  39,  220,  233 

Havers,  128 

Hawkbit,  139,  145,  146 

Autumnal,  140,  191,  396 

Rough,  140,  191,  395 

Hawk's-beard,  396 
Hawkweed,  12,  233 
Mouse-ear,  194,  396 

Orange,  194,  396 

Hay-loft  sweepings  spread  weeds,  21 
Heart's-ease,  68,  387 
Heaths,  151 

Common,  195,  396 

Cross-leaved,  195,  396 

Hedera  Helix,  13,  352,  393 
Hedge  Mustard,  n,  58,  386 
Parsley,  82,  392 

—  Parsley,  Upright,  171 
Hedges  and  ditches,  brushing  of,  33 
Hellebores,  155,  280,  281 
Helleborin,  281 
Hellebortis  sp.,  155 
—fatidus,  280,  385 

niger,  281 

viridis,  280,  385 

Helminthosporium  gramineum,  12 
Hemlock,  294,  391 


442 


INDEX 


Hemp-Agrimony,  329,  394 

Hemp  Nettle,  112,  233,  400 

Henbane,  n,  302,  398 

Henbit,  113,  400 

Henfoot,  392 

Hepatic    Cirrhosis   caused    by  Rag- 
weed, 187 

Hepialus  lupuli,  1 1 

Her ac leu  HI  Sphondylium,  169,  392 

Herb  Benet,  164,  390 

Gerard,  167,  233,  391 

Paris,  3 1 7,  404 

Robert,  78,  159,  389 

Hieracium,  12,  233 

aurantiacum,  194,  396 

—  Pilosella,  194,  396 

Hippuris  vulgaris,  326,  393 

Hoeing,  33 

Hogweed,  116,  169,  392 

Holcus  lanatus,   139,  151,  220,  233, 
407 

mollis,  222,  233,  407 

Honeysuckle,  13 

Hops,  ii,  403 

Wild,  208 

Hordeum  murinum,  12,  226,  407 

pratense,  39,  223,  407 

Horn  wort,  331,  402 

Horse  Daisy,  395 

Horse-penny,  268 

Horse-tail,   28,   47,    136,  228,   233, 
340,  408 

Hound's  Tongue,  299,  397 

Huckleberry,  305 

Humulus  LupuluS)  208,  403 

HydrocharidacecB,  332,  403 

Hydrochloric  acid,  350,  351 

Hydrocotyle  vulgaris,  167,  391 

Ilyoscyamine,  302,  306 

Hyoscyamus  niger,  302,  369,  398 

Hypnum,  229,  408 

Hypochceris  radicata,  191,  370,  395 

Iberis  amara,  67,  387 

IllecebracecB,  75,  388 

Implements  for  destroying  weeds,  30, 

34,  36-39,  ^o,  341-3 
Indian  Peas,  289 

Tares,  289,  390 

Insects  harboured  by  weeds,  10 

Iridacea,  333,  403 

Iris  Pseud-acorns,  333,  403 

Iron  sulphate,  use  of,  40,  45,  55,  61, 

262,  347,  348,  350 


Irrigation  against  Bracken,  227 

—  against  weeds,  39 
Ivy,  13,  352,  393 
Ivy-leaved  Duckweed,  405 
Speedwell,  109,  399 

JACK-BY-THE-HEDGE,  10,  58,  386 
Jasione  montana,  195,  396 
"Java"  Beans,  290,  390 
Jimson  Weed,  305 
Juncacece,  211,  405 
Juncus,  323 
conglomerates )  211 

—  effnsus,  211,  405 

—  glaucus,  211 

KAINIT,  148,  149 

Kedlock,  5<,  386 

Kex,  392 

Knapweed,  40,   142,  145,  146,  175, 

233.394 

Great,  177 

Knautia  arvensis,  369,  370 
Knawel,  Annual,  75,  233,  388 
Knot  Oat-grass,  1 3 1 
Knotgrass,  28,  47,  115,  401 
Knotted  Figwort,  329,  399 
Knotweed,  116,  233 

Labiates,  no,  199,  330,  400 
Laburnum,  292,  389 
Lady's  iMantle,  80,  165,  390 

-  Smock,  28,  156,  386 
Lamb's  Quarter,  40,  119,  401 

Tongue,  198,  398 

Laniium  album,  113,  400 

amplexicaule,  113,  400 

purpureum,  112,  400 

Lapsana  communis,?)"],  369,  370,  395 
Larkspur,  280,  385 
Lathrcea  squamaria,  273,  399 
Lawn  sands,  41,  345 

—  weeds,  345 

poisoning  of,  346 

Lathy 'rus,  289,  390 

Aphaca,  289 

sativus,  289 

Legislation   enforcing  destruction  of 

weeds,  &c. : — 
Argentina,  424 
Australasia,  418 

New  South  Wales,  419 
New  Zealand,  419 
Queensland,  420 
S.  Australia,  419 


INDEX 


443 


Legislation    enforcing  destruction  of 
weeds,  &c.  (continued] — 

Tasmania,  420 

Victoria,  418 

W.  Australia,  419 
Belgium,  425 
Canada,  413 

Alberta,  418 

British  Columbia,  416 

Manitoba,  415 

N.  W.  Territories,  416 

Ontario,  415 

Prince  Edward  Island,  418 

Quebec,  417 

Saskatchewan,  417 
Denmark,  427 
France,  424 
Germany,  425 
Hungary,  426 
Italy,  425 
Japan,  428 
Netherlands,  428 
Norway,  428 
Portugal,  428 
Russia,  428 
Servia,  428 
South  Africa,  420 

Cape  Colony,  420 

Natal,  421 

Orange  River  Colony,  421 

Transvaal,  421 
Sweden,  427 
Switzerland,  426 
United  Kingdom,  409 

Ireland,  41 1 

Isle  of  Man,  412 
United  States  of  America,  422 
Leguminosts,  159,  289,  389 
Letnna  minor,  334,  405 

—  polyrhiza,  335,  405 

trisulca,  335,  405 

LemnacecB,  334,  405 
Leontodon  sp.,  139,  141 

—  autumnalis,  140,  191,  370,  396 

hispidus,  140,  191,  395 

Taraxacum ,  193 

Lepidium  campestre,  65,  369,  387 

—  Draba,  66,  387 
Lesser  Broom -rape,  264,  399 

Celandine,  152,  280 

Duckweed,  334,  405 

Spearwort,  155,  279,  325,  384 

—  Willow  Herb,  166,  391 
Lichen,  351 


LiliacecB,  125,  209,  314,  404 

Lily-of-the-Valley,  317,  404 

Lime,   use  against   weeds,   74,    147, 

149,  151,  227,  347,  348 
Liming  of  old  grass  land,  149 
.Linaria  arvents,  369 

minor,  47 

officinalis,  369 

spuria,  369 

vulgaris,  109,  398 

Linece,  158,  388 

Ling,  151,  195,  396 

Linum  catharticum,  158,  388 

Lithospermum  arvense,  107,  397 

Lolium  perenne,  39,  319 

temulentum,  319,  370,  407 

Lonicera  Periclymenuw,  13 
Loranthacecs,  274,  402 
Lords  and  Ladies,  317,  405 
Losses  due  to  weeds : — 

Barley,  16 

Charlock,  59 

Hay,  1 6 

Mangold,  16 

Money,  15 

Potatoes,  1 6 
Lotus  corniculatus,  369 

major,  369 

Lousewort,  1 3,  272,  399 

Lucerne,  growth  of,  to  combat  weeds, 

30 

Lupinotoxine,  290 
Lupins,  289,  390 
Lupimis,  289.  390 

angustifolius •,  290 

luteus,  290 

Luzula  campestris,  140,  213,  405 

multijlora,  213 

Lychnis  diurna,  69,  156,  387 

Flos-cuculi,  156/370,  387 

vespertina,  26,  69,  156,  387 

Lycoperdon  polymorphnm,  348,  408 

MADDER,  Field,  85,  393 
Magnesia,  145 

Maize,  growth  of,  to  combat  weeds,  30 
Mallow,  Common,  158,  388 
Malvasylvcstris,  158,  388  ' 
Malvacece,  158,  388 
Mangold  Fly,  1 1 
Manures,  artificial,  146 

effect  on  grass  land,  144,  148 

nitrogenous,  42 

Manorial  value  of  weeds,  3 


444 


INDEX 


Manuring,  41 

Mare's-tail,  228,  326,  393,  408 
Marsh  Bent-grass,  39,  217,  406 
Cudweed,  96,  187,  395 

-  Figwort,  329,  398 

-  Marigold,  323,  325,  385 
Pennywort,  167,  391 

—  Red  Rattle,  399 
-Thistle,  178,  394 

—  Wound  wort,  330,  400 
Marshwort,  328,  392 
Matfellon,  177 
Mat-grass,  216 
Matricaria  Chamomilla,  90,  395 

inodora,  24,  92,  369,  395 

sp.,  47 

Mattock,  38 

Mat- weed,  216,  406 

Mayweed,  233 

Scentless,  24,  92,  395 

-  Stinking,  90,  234,  395 
Meadow  Barley-grass,  39,  142,  223, 
234,  407 

—  Crane's-bill,  159,  389 
Crocus,  314 

Grass,  Annual,  27,  129,  407 

Rue,  152,  384 

-Saffron,  5,  233,  314,  404 
Meadow-sweet,  28,  163,  390 
Melampyrum  arvense,  14 

pratense,  272,  399 

Meld- weed,  119 
Melilotus  alba,  369 

officinalis,  369 

Mentha  aquatica,  330,  400 

arvensiS)  1 10,  400 

Merchandise  Marks  Act,  362 
Mercurialine,  "309 
Mercurialis  annua,  309,  402 

perennis,  309,  402 

Mezereon,  308,  401 

Mice  distribute  weed  seeds,  20 

Milfoil,  140,  185,  395 

Water,  327,  393 

Milk  tainted  by  weeds,  13,  154,  209, 

211 
Mineral  manures,  use  against  weeds, 

42,  145,  147 
Mint,  Capitate,  330,  400 

—  Corn,  no,  400 

Field,  1 10,  400 

Water,  323 

-Wild,  233 
Mistletoe,  274,  402 


Mithridate  Mustard,  66,  387 
Moisture,  loss  due  to  weeds,  7,  9 
Molinia  ccerttlea,  370 
Molteno  Cattle  Sickness  caused  by 

Senecio,  189 

Money  losses  due  to  weeds,  1 5 
Monkshood,  155,  276,  385 
Morning  Glory,  104 
Morphine,  281 
Moss,  28,  151,  229,  233,  347,408 

—  on  fruit-trees,  351 
Motor  punt  weed -cutter,  343 
Mountain  Flax,  233 

Mouse-ear  Chickweed,  69,  139,  140, 
156, 388 

—  Hawkweed,  194,  396 
Mousetail,  50,  384 
Mowing,  36 

Mugwort,  233 

Mummy  wheat,  25 

Musci,  229,  408 

Mustard,  Garlic,  10,  13,  58,  386 

Hedge,  11,  58,  386 

Mithridate,  66,  387 

Wild,  58,  386 

Myosotis  arvensis,  107,  397 

palustris,  397 

versicolor,  107,  397 

Myosurus  minimus,  50,  384 
Myriophyllum  alterniflorum,  327,339 

—  verticillatum,  328,  393 

NaiadacecB,  33^,  404 

Naked  Ladies,  314 

Nardus  strict  a,  216,  370,  406 

Navew,  386 

Needles,  81,  392 

Nettle,  233 

-  Day,  400 

-  Hemp,  112,  233,  400 

-  Henbit  Dead,  113,  400 

Red  Dead,  112,  400 

Stinging,  28,  41,  44,  207 

Great,  124,  207,  402 

Small,  125,  402 

—  White  Dead,  113,  400 
Nightshade,  1 1 

Black  or  Garden,  108,  304,  398 

-  Deadly,  5,  300,  398 

Woody,  302,  398 

Nipplewort,  97,  395 
Nitella,  323,  340,  408 

Nitrate  of  soda  on  grass,   145,  147, 
148,  149 


INDEX 


445 


Nitrates,    retention    of,    in    soil    by    I 

weeds,  2 

Nitrogen  in  pastures,  143 
Nitrogenous    manures  favour  weeds, 

42 

Nuphar  luteum,  325,  386 
NymphceacecB,  325,  386 
Nymphcea  alba,  326,  386 

OAK,  313,  403 

Oat  Grass,  Bulbous,  131 

Downy,  39,  145,  4°7 

False,  147 

Narrow-leaved,  407 

Wild,  128,  233,  407 

—  Yellow,  39 
Oats,  blindness  of,  1 2 

Bristle-pointed,  129 

Wild,  233 

CEnanthe  crocata,  296,  392 
OZnanthin,  298 

Oil  of  Euphorbia,  309,  311 

Old  Man's  Beard,  151,  384 

Onagracece,  166,  391 

"  Onion  "  Couch,  407 

Onion,  Wild,  40,  44,  125,  209,  404 

Ononis  repens,  163 

spinosa,  163,  389 

Onopordon  Acanthium,  u,  182,  394    ' 
Ophioglossum  vulgat^lm,  408 
Orache,  Halberd-leaved,  122,401 

Spreading,  122,  401 

Orange  Hawkweed,  194,  396 
Orchards,  weeds  in,  136 
Orchidacece,  208,  403 
Orchis  macuZata,  208,  403 
mascula,  208,  403 

—  Purple,  208,  403 

Spotted,  208,  403 

Orobanchacecs ,  263,  399 
Orobanche,  263,  399 

—  minor,  264,  399 
ramosa,  264 

—  Rapum-genistcB,  264 
Oscinis  frit,  1 1 

Oxalis  Ascetosella,  389 

Ox-eye  Daisy,  24,  28,  40,  186,  234, 

395 
Yellow,  92 

PADDOCK-PIPES,  228,  408 
Papaver  Argemone,  53 

—  dubium,  24,  53,  369,  385 

—  hybridum,  53 


Papaver  Rhceas,  24,  53,  281,  369,  385 

somniferum,  53,  281 

Papaver  ace  CB,  53,  281,  385 
Paper,  tarred,  use  of,  41 
Paradin,  317 
Parasitic  weeds,  12,  256 
Paris  quadrifolia,  3 1 7,  404 
Parsley,  Common  Beaked,  39,   147, 
392 

Cow,  234 

Fool's,  24,  83,  298,  392 

—  Hedge,  82,  392 

—  Upright  Hedge,  171 
Parsley  Piert,  80,  390 
Parti-coloured  Scorpion  Grass,  107 
Pasque  Flower,  384 

Pastures,  experiments  on,  141 

nitrogen  in,  143 

Paths,  weeds  in,  349 
Pearl-grass,  131 
Peas,  48 
Pedicularis,  13 

—  palustris,  272,  323,  399 

sylvatica,  272 

Pegomyia  beta,  1 1 
Pepperwort,  66,  233,  387 
Field,  65,  387 

Penny  Cress,  40,  66,  387 
Perennial  Ryegrass,  39 

Sow  Thistle,  47,  101,  396 

Perennials,  18,  35 
Periderniium  pini,  12 
Peronospora  effusa,  12 

parasitica,  1 1 

Persicaria,  7,  8,  27,  47,  114,  401 

Petasites  vulgaris,  1 79,  394 

Pdroselinum,  234 

Petty  Spurge,  124,  402 

Phaseolunatin,  291 

Phaseolus  lunatus,  290,  390 

Phorbia  brassicce,  1 1 

Phosphates,  influence  on  grass,  143 

Phosphoric  acid,  145 

Phragmites  coinmunis,  323,  339,  407 

Phyttotreta  (Haltica)  nemorum,  1 1 

Pictou     Cattle    Disease    caused     by 

Ragwort,  187 
Pig-nut,  234,  391 
Pig- weed,  119 
Pilewort,  152,  385 
Pimpernel,  Scarlet,  6,  113,  400 
Pine  Cluster-cups,  12 
Plankton,  323 
Plantaginece,  108,  196,  398 


446  INDEX 


Planlago  lanceolata,  24,  39,  108, 
139,  140,  141,  196,  359,  369, 
370,  398 

major i  108,   198,  398 

media,  39,  198,  398 

sp.,  27,  196 

Plantain,  II,  27,  43,  140,  146,  196, 
233,  346,  349 

Broad-leaved,    39,    108,    198, 

398 

Greater,  198,  398 

Hoary,  198,  398 

Narrow-leaved,  2A 

Ribwort,  39,  108^196,  398 

-Water,  335,  403 

Plasmodiophora  brassicce,  I  o,  1 1 

Ploughing,  33,  41 

Plutella  mactilipennis,  10,  n 

Poa  annua,   11,  27,   129,  233,  346, 

349,  407 

pratensis,  39 

trii'ialis,  39 

Poisonous  weeds,  13,  276 
PolygonacecB,    114,    201,    308,    331, 

401 
Polygonum  Aviculare,  47,  115,  369, 

401 
Convolvulus,  ii,    13,  47,   116, 

369,  401 

lapathifolium,  369,  370 

Persicaria,    8,    27,    114,    369, 

401 
Pond  weed,  336,  403,  404 

Canadian,  332,  403 

—  Curly,  404 

Floating,  404 

Lucid,  404 

Opposite-leaved,  404 

• Small,  404 

-  Various-leaved,  404 
Poor- Man's  Weather-Glass,  113,  400 
Poppies,  spraying  of,  47 
Poppy,  5,  24,  233 

Common  Red,  53,  281 

Scarlet,  385 

Destroyer,  3J,  55 

Long  Smooth-headed,  53,  385 

—  Opium,  53,  281 

Shirley,  5 

Potamogeton,  323,  336 

crispus,  338,  404 

densus,  338,  404 

heterophyllus ,  336,  404 

lucens,  338,  404 


Potamogeton  natans,  336,  404 
perfoliatus •,  338,  404 

—  polygonifolius,  336,  404 

pitsillus,  338,  404 

Potash,  145,  146 
Potatoes,  48,  307 

Potentilla  Anserina,  78,  140,  390 

—  reptans,  79,  164,  390 

—  Tormentilla,  165,  390 
Polerium  officinale,  165,  391 

Sanguisorba,  165,  391 

Poverty  weed,  186 
Prevention  of  seeding,  30 
of  weeds,  29 

Prickly  Saltwort,  n 
Prinnda  vert's,  201,  400 
Primulacece,  113,  201,  400 
Prunella  alba,  359 

—  vulgaris,   139,   140,   199,  369, 
370,  400 

Prunus  laurocerasus ,  292,  390 
Pteris  aquilina,  151,  226,  408 
Pttccina  graminis,  10,  12,  155 

hieracii,  12 

pringsheimiana,  1 2 

Puff-ball,  348 
Purging  Flax,  158,  388 
Purple  Orchis,  208,  403 

QUACK, 132 

Quaking   Grass,    28,    39,    146,    222, 

407 
Quality  of  soils  indicated  by  weeds, 

27 

Queen  of  the  Meadow,  163,  390 
Quercus,  313 

—  Kobur,  403 

RAGGED  ROBIN,  28,  156,  387 

Ragweed.     See  Ragwort 

Ragwort,  6,  12,  28,40,42,  150,  187, 

189,  23?,  395 

Rain  as  distributor  of  weed  seeds,  19 
Ramsons,  211,  404 
RanuncnlacecB,    50,    151,   276,    324, 

384 
Ranunculus  acrts,  13,  39,  140,  141, 

i52»  279,  369,  370,  385 
aqnatilis,  385 

-  arvensis,  52,  280,  385 

bulbosus,  39,  140,  152,  279,  385 


—  Ficaria,  152,  280,  385 
Flammula,  155,  279,  323,  325, 


INDEX 


447 


Ranunculus fli titans,  325,  384 

hehrophyllus ,  324 

Lingua,  325,  384 

peltatus,  325,  384 

repens,  27,  50,   140,   152,280, 

369,  370,  385 

sceleratus,  155,  279,  325,  384 

sp.,  13°,  152 

trichophyllus,  325 

Raphanus  microcarpus,  62,  387 

Raphanistrum,  8,  46,  62,  387 

sativus,  var.  oleifer,  62,  387 

Rattles  or  Rattle  Grass,  268,  399 
Reapers,  seed-catching  box  for,  30 
Red  Bartsia,  19  \  272,  399 

Campion,  69,  156,  387 

Dead  Nettle,  112,  400 

Rattle,  272 

—  Robin,  116 

Redshank,  8,  47,  114,  233,  401 
Reed,  339,  407 
Reed  fungus,  12 

Grass,  323 

Reed-mace,  334,  406 

Remedial  measures,  33 

Reseda  lutea,  369 

Rest  Harrow,  28,  163,  233,  389 

Rhamnea,  288,  389 

Rhamnns  catharticus,  288,  389 

Rhinanthine,  269 

Rhinanthus    Crista-galli,    13,    140, 

268, 399 

Rhizoctonia  violacea,  12 
Rhododendron,  299,  396 

Chrysanthemum,  299 

ferrugineiim,  299 

hirsutum,  299 

ponticiim,  299 

Rhoeadine,  281 

Ribgrass,  139,  140,141,142, 196,398 

Ribwort  Plantain,  39,  108,  139,  140, 

149,  196,  398 
Ricinus  comimmis,  311 
Rivers  distribute  weed  seeds,  19 
Rootstocks   creeping,   weeds    spread 

by,  21 

Rosa  canina,  1 66,  391 
Rosacea,  78,  151,  163,  292,  390 
Rose,  Dog,  1 66,  391 
Rosellinia  necatrix,  10,  12 

—  radiciperda,  12 
Rotation  of  crops,  32 
Rothamsted     Experiments     on     the 

manuring  of  grass  land,  144 


Rough  Hawkbit,  140,  191,  395 

—  Meadow  Grass,  39 
Rubiacece,  83,  172,  393 
Rubus  fwclicosus,  164,  390 
Riimex,  ii,  27,  1 1 8,  140 

Acetosa,    139,    140,   141,   151, 

206,  360,  370,  401 
Acetosella,  119,   151,  204,  308, 

369,  370,401 
aquaticus,  203 

—  crispus,  201,  369,  370,  401 

Hydrolapathum,  331,  401 

obtusifolius,  20 1,  401 

pratensfs*  203 

sanguineus,  203,  401 

Runch,  62,  233 

Rushes,  4,  28,   150,  211,  233,  323, 
405 

Wood,  212,  405 

Rust  of  wheat,  10,  12 

Ryegrass,  50 

Rye-like  Brome  Grass,  130,  407 

SAFFRON,  Meadow,  5,  233,  314,  404 
Sagiitaria  sagiltifolia,  336,  4°  3 
Sainfoin,  growth  of,to  combat  weeds, 

30 

Salad  Burnet,  165,  391 
Salsola  Kali,  1 1 
Salt,  use  of,  40,  44,  268,  271,  346, 

349 
Sandwort,  71,  388 

-  Thyme-leaved,  71,  388 
Saponin,  287 
Sapotoxin,  287 
Sauce-alone,  58,  386 
Scabiosa  arvensis,  172,  393 

Columbaria,  393 

—  succisa,  173.  393 
Scabious,  Devil's-bit,  173,  393 
Field,  177,  233,  393,  394 

—  Sheep's,  I95»  233,  396 
Small,  393 

Scandix  Pecten-  Veneris,  81,  392 
Scarlet  Pimpernel,  6,  113,  400 
Scentless  Mayweed,  24,  92,  395 
Scirpus  lacustris,  323,  338,  405 

Tabernamontani,  323,  339 

Scleranthiis  annuus,  76,   369,    370, 

388 

Sclerotinia  sclerotiorum,  12 
Sclerotium  disease,  12 
Scorpion  Grass,  Parti-coloured,  107, 

397 


INDEX 


Screenings,  weed  seeds  in,  33 
Scrophularia  aquatica,  329,  398 

nodosa,  329,  399 

ScrophulariacecB,  109,  199,  268,  307, 

329,  398 
Scutch,  132 

Scutellaria  galericula'a,  330,  400 
Sedges,  4,  12,  28,  140,  214,  233,  339, 

405 
Seed  testing,  353 

for  farmers,  363 

germinating  test,  365 

importance  of,  358 

purity  test,  365 

stations,  353 

—  taking  of  samples,  364 
Seed-catching  box  for  reapers,  30 
Seeding,  prevention  of,  30 

Seeds  produced  by  various  weeds,  23 

sowing  of  bad,  144 

—  clean,  31 

—  true  value  of,  367 
vitality  of,  23 

Self-heal,  159,  140,  199,  233,  400 
Senebiera  Coronoptts,  68,  387 
Senecio  Jacobaa,  6,  40,  187,  395 

latifolius,  189 

vulgaris,  24,  27,  96,  395 

Sheep  destroy  weeds,  36, 40,  1 50,  189 

Sheep-dip  as  weed  killer,  350 

Sheep's  Bit,  396 

Shepherd's  Needle,  81,  392 

Purse,  10,  n,   12,  24,  27,  40, 

63.  233,  349,  387 
Sherardia  arvensis,  85,  369,  393 
Shirley  Poppies,  5 
Silenc  inflata,  69,  157,  369,  387 
Silver-weed,  28,  78,  140,  234,  390 
Sinapis  arvensis,  10,  II,  24,  27,  58, 

283,  386 

"  Singling"  of  cultivated  crops,  6,  10 
Sisymbrium  Alliaria,  10,  58,  386 
ojficinale,  58,  369,  386 

—  Thaliana,  47 

Shim  angustifolium,  328,  391 

latifolium,  391 

Skellock,  58,  386 

Skull-cap,  330,  400 

Slender  Foxtail,  126,  406 

Slime,  343 

Small-flowered  Hairy  Willow  Herb, 

1 66,  391 

Small  Toadflax,  47 
Smilacin,  287 


Smooth  Brome  Grass,  1 3 1 
Soda,  for  killing  weeds,  39,  349 
Sodium  arsenite,  44,  262 
Soft  Brome  Grass,  147,  223,  233,  407 
Soils,  quality  of,  indicated  by  weeds, 
27 

—  weeds  of  damp,  28 

—  good,  28 

—  poor,  28 

Solanacea,  io3,  300,  398 
Solanine,  304,  307 

Solatium  Dulcatnai  a,  300,  302,  398 
guineense,  305 

—  nigruni,  108,  304,  398 
tuberosum,  307 

villosum,  305 

Sonchus  arvensis,  24»  47?  101,  396 

—  asper,  369 

—  oleraceus,  8,  1 1,  27,  99,  369,  396 

—  sp.,  140 

Sorrel,  12,  146,  147,  233 

—  Common.   139,   140,   151,  206, 
401 

Sheep's,  28,  41,  119,  151,  204, 

308,  401 

-  Wood,  389 

Sour  Dock,  139,  140,  206 

Sourock,  206 

Sow  Thistle,  7,  8,  u,  24,  28,  140 

—  Annual,  27,  99,  396 
Corn,  101,  396 

-  Perennial,  47,  101,  396 
Sowing  of  bad  seed,  144 

—  of  clean  seed,  31 
Space  taken  up  by  weeds,  6 
Sparganium  ramosum,  333,406 

—  simplex,  334,  406 
Spear  Thistle,  178,  394 
Spearwort,  325,  384 
Greater,  325,  384 

-  Lesser,  155,  279,  325,  384 
Speedwell,  Corn,  109,  233,  399 

—  Common   or   Germander,   140, 

iP9>  339 
Ivy-leaved,  109,  399 

-  Water,  330,  399 
Spergula  arvensis,  8,  71,  151,  388 
Sphagnum,  229.  408 

Spindle  Tree,  288,  389 
Spircea  Ulmaria,  163,  390 
Spotted  Orchis,  208,  403 
Spraying — 

Anthemis  sp.,  47 

Bindweeds,  47 


INDEX 


449 


Spraying  (continued} — 
.    Charlock,  40,  46,  61 

Chenopodiiim  sp.,  47 

Corn  Cockle,  47 

Cornflower,  47 

Couch,  47 

Creeping  Thistle,  47 
I    Daisies,  43 

Dandelion,  47,  193 

Docks,  47 

Dodder,  40,  262 

Effect  on  cereals,  47 

Euphorbia  sp.,  47 

Fumitory,  47 

Great  Ragweed,  40 

Groundsel,  47 

Horse-tail,  47 

Knotgrass,  47 

Lamb's  Quarter,  40 

Lawns,  43 

Lichens,  351 

Matricaria,  47 

Moss,  on  fruit-trees,  381 

Penny  Cress',  40 

Perennial  Sow  Thistle,  47 

Plantains,  43 

Poppies,  47,  55 

Shepherd's  Purse,  40 

Sisymbriuw  Thaliana,  47 

Small  Toadflax,  47 

Spurrey,  47,  74 

Wild  Barley,  40 
—  Buckwheat,  40 

Onion,  40,  44,  126,  209 

-  Radish,  46,  62 
— •  Rose,  40 
Spraying  with  ammonium   sulphate, 

4ii  43 

with  arsenite  of  soda,  40,  44, 

262 

with  carbolic  acid,  40,  126,  209 

with  copper  sulphate,  40,  45, 

55,  61,  74 

with  iron  sulphate,  40,  45,  55, 

61,  262 

with  salt,  40,  44 

Spreading  Orache,  122,  401 
Spudding,  36 
Spurge  Laurel,  308,  401 
Spurges,  47 

Caper,  124,  309,  402 

Dwarf,  124,  402 

Petty,  124,  402 

Sun,  124,  402 


Spurrey,  5,  7,  8,  u,  28,  41,  47,  71, 

i5I,233,  388 

Squirrels  distribute  weed  seeds,  20 
Squitch,  132,  218 
Stachys  arvensis,  1 12,  369,  400 

palustris,  330,  400 

Starch  wort,  318 

Stellaria  graminea,  369,  370 

-  media,  24,  27,  70,  369,  370,  388 
Stem  eelworm,  10,  II 

Stemless  Thistle,  178,  394 
Sterile  Brome  Grass,  28,  223,  407 
Stinking  Chamomile,  90 
—  Hellebore,  280,  385 

-  Mayweed,  90,  234,  395 
Stinkweed,  67 

Stonework,  weeds  and  moss  on,  351 

Stonewort,  340,  408 

Streams  distribute  weed  seeds,  19 

Succory,  99 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  41,  149,  345, 

346 
of  copper,  40,  47,  55,  61,  343, 

350 
of  iron,  40,  47,  55, 61,  347,  348, 

350 

Sulphuric  acid,  346,  350 
Sun  Spurge,  124,  402 
Superphosphate,  146,  148,  149 
Surface  Twitch,  116 
Swans  keep  down  water  weeds,  343 
Sweepings  spread  weed  seeds,  21 
Sweet  Vernal,  224 
Swine's  Cress,  68,  387 
Symphytum  officinale,  196,  397 

Tanacetum  vulgare,  95,  395 

Tansy,  95,  395 

Taraxacum  officinale,   u,   24,    140, 

193,  396 
Tares,  14 

Tarred  paper,  use  of,  4 1 
Taxine,  312 

Taxus  baccata^  312,  403 
Teazle,  Fuller's,  172 

Wild,  172,  393 

Thale  Cress,  233 
Thalictrumflavum,  152,  384 
Thistle  Cutter,  36,  150 
Thistle,  Cotton,  n,  179,  394 
Creeping,  4,    27,   34,   41,    86, 

179,  394 

Dwarf,  394 

Marsh,  178,  394 

2  F 


450 


INDEX 


Thistle,  Sow,  7,  8,  n,  24,  27,  28, 
140,  396 

Spear,  178,  394 

Stemless,  178,  394 

Thistles,  i  i,  28,  140,  150,  177,  233 

Thlaspi  arvense,  66,  369,  387 

Thorn  Apple,  305,  398 

Thrashing  machines,  cleansing  of,  33 

Thyinelacea,  308,  401 

Thyme-leaved  Sandwort,  71,  388 

Tillage  promoted  by  weeds,  3 

Toadflax,  Yellow,  109,  233,  398 

Toadpipe,  228 

Toothwort,  273,  399 

Torilis  Anthriscus,  171,  369,  392 

—  nodosa,  82,  392 
Tormentil,  165,  390 
Totter  Grass,  223 
Tragopogon  pratensis^  191,  395 
Transpiration  by  plants,  9 
Traveller's  Joy,  13,  151,  384 
Trenching  to  kill  weeds,  3,  41 
Trifolium  arvense,  369 

—  minus,  369 

—  pratense,  13,  39,  359 

procumbent ,  369,  370 

repens,  39 

sp. ,  27 

Triticnm  repens,  132,  233,  319,  370, 

407 

Tufted  Hair-grass,  143,  220,  406 
Turnip  Flea  Beetle  or  Fly,  1 1 
Tussilago  Farfara,  24,  87,  185,  394 
Tussock  Grass,  28,  220,  406 
Twitch,  132,  218,  233,  407 

Surface,  1 16 

Tylenchus  devastatrix,  10,  II 
Typha  latifolia,  334,  406 
Typhacece,  333,  406 

Ulex  europatis,  161,  389 
-  Gal  Hi,  161 

—  nanus,  161 

Umbelliferce,  81,  151,  167,  294,  328, 

39i 

Upright  Hedge  Parsley,  171 
Urtica  dioica,  124,  207,  402 

iirens,  125,  402 

Urticacece,  124,  207,  402 
Uses  of  weeds,  2 

VALERIAN,  329,  392 

officinalis,  329,  392 

Valerianacece,  329,  392 


Venus'  Comb,  81,  392 
Veronica  agrestis,  109,  233,  399 

Anagallis,  330,  399 

Beccabunga,  330,  399 

Buxbaiimii,  109 

—  Chamcsdrys,  140,  199,  399 

—  hedercefolia,  109,  399 
Vetches,  effect  of  spraying  on,  48 

growth  of,  to  combat   Annual 

Knawel,  76 

—  weeds,  30 

Viola  tricolor,  68,  369,  370,  387 
Violacea,  68,  387 
Violet  Root  Rot,  12 
Viper's  Bugloss,  28,  106,  397 
Visctcin  album,  274,  402 
Vitality  of  seeds,  23,  59 

WALL  BARLEY  GRASS,  226 

Wart  Cress,  68,  233,  387 

Waste  corners,  weeds  seeding  in,  22 

"Watch  Wheels,"  53 

Water  Bedstraw,  393 . 

Cress,  5 

—  Crowfoot,  323,  324,  384,  385 

—  Dropwort,  296,  392 
Figwort,  398 

—  fowl,  341 

-  Hemlock,  296,  391,  392 

-  Lilies,  323,  325,  326,  386 

-  Milfoil,  327,  393 

-  Mint,  323 

-  Parsnip,  328,  391 

—  Plantain,  335,  403 

-  Speedwell,  330,  399 

-  Starwort,  326,  393 

-  Thyme,  332,  403 

Wavy  Hair  Grass,  151,  218,  406 
Waybent,  226,  407 
Waybread,  198,  398 
Weed  seeds,  eaten  by  birds,  429 

grinding  of,  33 

illustrations  of,  378-383 

in  farm  seeds,  368 

number  in  soil,  26 

reduce     value     of    agricultural 

seeds,  14 

—  vitality  of,  23 
Weed-cutter,  341 

— r  motor  punt,  342 
Weed  cutting  saw,  342 

—  killers,  346,  350 

Weevil,   Cabbage  and   Turnip  Gall, 
il 


INDEX 


451 


Wheat,  14 

—  "  mummy,"  25 
rust,  10,  12,  155 

suppressed  by  weeds,  49 

Whickens,  132 
Whin,  161,  389 
White  Bottle,  387 

—  Campion,  26,  69,  387 
-  Charlock,  7,  62,  387 

—  Dead  Nettle,  113,  400 

—  root  rot,  10,  12 

—  in  New  Zealand,  1 2 

—  rot,  391 

rust  of  cabbages,  1 2 

Water-lily,  326,  386 

Wild  Barley,  12,  40 

—  Buckwheat,  40 

—  Carrot,  24,  170,  233,  234,  392 
Chamomile,  90,  395 

—  Chervil,  169 
Chicory,  99,  395 

—  Hop,  208 

—  Liquorice,  163 

—  Mint,  233 

—  Mustard,  58,  386 
Oat,  233 

Oat  Grass,  128,  407 

—  Onion,  <O,  44,  125,  209,  404 

—  Radish,  7,  8,  46,  62,  387 
Rose,  40 

Teazle,  172,  393 

Turnip,  386 

Vetches,  13 

Willow  Herbs,  166,  391 


Wind  as  distributor  of  weed  seeds,  19 
Winged  seeds,  19 
Winter  Cress,  1 1 

Winter  washing  of  fruit-trees,  351 
Wolfsbane,  385 
"  Wonderberry,"  305 
Wood  Anemone,  280,  384 
—  Avens,  164,  390 

Sorrel,  389 

Wood-rush,  212,  405 

Field,  140 

Woody  Nightshade,  302,  398 
Woundwort,  Corn,  112,  400 
Marsh,  330,  400 


YARROW,  7,  8,  139,  140,  142,  146, 

185,  395 
Yellow  Bartsia,  199,  272,  399 

Bedstraw,  172,  393 

Cow-wheat,  399 

Flag,  403 

Iris,  323,  333 

Lupin,  290 

Oat  Grass,  39 

Ox-eye,  92 

-  Rattle,  i.',  140,  233,  268,  399 

Toadflax,  109,  233,  398 

Vetchling,  289 

Water-lily,  325,  386 

—  Weed,  58 
Yew,  312,403 

Yorkshire  Fog,  II,  28,  139,  142,  143, 
147,  149,  151,  220,  407 


THE    END 


,  HANSON  <5r  Co. 
rgh  &•*  London 


